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Fukushima Nuclear Crisis [April 4, 2011]

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This report is an update to earlier Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports entitled "Fukushima Nuclear Crisis" and bearing the report number "R41694". The first was released on March 15, 2011 and the second is dated March 24, 2011. This release provides status updates on the six units at the Fukushima Daiichi plant with the greatest emphasis on the four co-located reactors which were in operation at the moment of the earthquake and resulting tsunami.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Campbell, Richard J.

2011-04-04
Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [March 2, 2011]

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"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power is attracting renewed interest. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 541 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. A major concern about the global expansion of nuclear power is the potential spread of nuclear fuel cycle technology--particularly uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing--that could be used for nuclear weapons. Despite 30 years of effort to limit access to uranium enrichment, several undeterred states pursued clandestine nuclear programs, the A.Q. Khan black market network's sales to Iran and North Korea representing the most egregious examples. However, concern over the spread of enrichment and reprocessing technologies may be offset by support for nuclear power as a cleaner and more secure alternative to fossil fuels. Both the Bush and Obama Administrations have expressed optimism that advanced nuclear technologies being developed by the Department of Energy may offer proliferation resistance. Both Administrations have also pursued international incentives and agreements intended to minimize the spread of fuel cycle facilities."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony

2011-03-02
Fukushima Nuclear Crisis [March 24, 2011]

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"The earthquake on March 11, 2011, off the east coast of Honshu, Japan's largest island, reportedly caused an automatic shutdown of eleven of Japan's fifty-five operating nuclear power plants. Most of the shutdowns proceeded without incident. However, the plants closest to the epicenter, Fukushima and Onagawa (see Figure 1), were damaged by the earthquake and resulting tsunami. The Fukushima Daiichi plant subsequently suffered hydrogen explosions and probable nuclear fuel damage, releasing significant amounts of radioactive material into the environment. Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) operates the Fukushima nuclear power complex in the Futaba district of Fukushima prefecture in Northern Japan, consisting of six nuclear units at the Daiichi station and four nuclear units at the Daini station. All the units at the Fukushima complex are boiling water reactors, with reactors 1 to 5 at the Daiichi site being the General Electric Mark I design (see Figure 2). The Fukushima Daiichi reactors entered commercial operation in the years from 1971 (reactor 1) to 1979 (reactor 6). At the time of the earthquake, reactors 1, 2, and 3 at Daiichi were operating and shut down after the quake, while reactors 4, 5, and 6 were already shut down for routine inspections. All four of the Daini reactors were operating at the time of the earthquake and taken down after the quake. Nuclear reactors produce power by fissioning (splitting) the nuclei of heavy isotopes, such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239, through the absorption of neutrons. Each fission event generates additional neutrons that induce more fission events, creating a continuous nuclear chain reaction. The heavy nuclei split into lighter isotopes called fission products, many of which are highly radioactive, such as iodine-129, iodine-131, strontium-90, and cesium-137. To shut down the nuclear chain reaction, neutron-absorbing control rods are inserted into the reactor core. However, even though the fission process has stopped, the fission products and other radioactive isotopes in the reactor core continue to generate significant heat through radioactive decay. Until the decay heat sufficiently diminishes, a source of electricity is needed to operate pumps and circulate water in the reactor. Under normal conditions, it would take a few days for a reactor core to cool down to a 'cold shutdown' state."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Campbell, Richard J.

2011-03-24
CRS Issue Statement on Nuclear Energy [December 8, 2009]

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This issue statement discusses nuclear energy issues in the United States. From the text: "Nuclear energy is viewed by its supporters as a virtually inexhaustible and clean source of power. But the industry has been hampered by construction cost overruns, delays by regulators and interveners, concerns about nuclear weapons proliferation, and controversy over nuclear waste disposal. Nuclear power plants now supply one-fifth of the U.S. demand for electricity, although no new U.S. reactors have been ordered since the 1970s and none have begun operation during the past 13 years. But as the price of conventional fossil fuels has grown more volatile, the economics of nuclear power have begun to appear more attractive. In addition, concern about carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, particularly coal, has led some former critics of nuclear energy to reconsider its merits."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2009-12-08
Greenhouse Gas Legislation: Summary and Analysis of H.R. 2454 as Passed by the House of Representatives [July 27, 2009]

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"H.R. 2454, the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, was introduced May 15, 2009, by Representatives Waxman and Markey, and was subsequently modified (both technical and substantive changes) and ordered reported by the House Committee on Energy and Commerce on May 21, 2009. The bill was reported (amended) June 5 (H.Rept. 111-137, Part I). It was passed in the House on June 26, 2009, by a recorded vote of 219-212. H.R. 2454 contains provisions that would amend the Clean Air Act to establish a cap-and-trade system designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from covered sources 17% below 2005 levels by 2020 and 83% below 2005 levels by 2050. The market-based approach would establish an absolute cap on the emissions and would allow trading of emissions permits ("allowances"). The bill achieves its broad coverage through an upstream compliance mandate on petroleum and most fluorinated gas producers and importers, and a downstream mandate on electric generators and industrial sources, and a midstream mandate on natural gas local distribution companies (LDCs). The bill allocates a substantial percentage of the allowances for the benefit of energy consumers and low-income households. As the program proceeds through the mid-2020s it shifts to more government auctioning with most of the proceeds returned to households. The bill's allocation scheme includes free allowance allocations to energy-intensive, trade-exposed industries, merchant coal-fired electric generators, and petroleum refiners. An important cost control mechanism in the cap-and-trade program is the availability of domestic and international offsets."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Whitney, Gene

2009-07-27
Advanced Nuclear Power and Fuel Cycle Technologies: Outlook and Policy Options [July 11, 2008]

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This CRS Report analyzes the outlook and policy options for developing "advanced nuclear reactor and fuel technologies. [...] If the next generation of nuclear power plants consists of LWRs (light water reactor), what is the potential role of advanced nuclear reactor and fuel cycle technologies? Do current plans for a new generation of LWRs raise potential problems that advanced nuclear technologies could or should address? Can new fuel cycle technologies reduce the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation? What is the appropriate time frame for the commercial deployment of new nuclear technology? This report provides background and analysis to help Congress address those questions. [...] All commercial nuclear power plants in the United States, as well as nearly all nuclear plants worldwide, use light water reactor (LWR) technology that was initially developed for naval propulsion. Cooled by ordinary water, LWRs in the early years were widely considered to be an interim technology that would pave the way for advanced nuclear concepts. After the early 1960s, the federal government focused most of its nuclear power research and development efforts on breeder reactors and high temperature reactors that could use uranium resources far more efficiently and potentially operate more safely than LWRs. [...] The Bush Administration is also promoting an aggressive U.S. effort to move beyond LWR technology into advanced reactors and fuel cycles. Specifically, the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), under the Department of Energy (DOE) is developing advanced reprocessing (or recycling) technologies to extract plutonium and uranium from spent nuclear fuel, as well as an advanced reactor that could fully destroy long-lived radioactive isotopes."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2008-07-11
Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [Updated February 24, 2006]

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"Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but new storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2006-02-24
U.S.-China Nuclear Cooperation Agreement [December 13, 2005]

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"This CRS Report, updated as warranted, discusses the agreement on civilian nuclear cooperation with the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) by focusing on congressional roles in crafting and carrying out the agreement. Some Members have been concerned about U.S. nuclear cooperation with China in the context of China's practices related to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Members also have been interested in how Congress reviewed the agreement with China as well as how this experience might apply to other similar agreements, such as that with India. Congress also exercises oversight of exchanges with China in the nuclear area conducted by the Department of Energy and its National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA). Some Members have considered whether financing by the U.S. Export-Import Bank should support nuclear exports to China."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Kan, Shirley

2005-12-13
Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [Updated October 7, 2008]

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This CRS report discusses civilian nuclear waste disposal including: recent developments, nuclear utility lawsuits, congressional action, and current policy and regulation. "Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2008-10-07
Omnibus Energy Legislation (H.R. 6): Side-by-side Comparison of Non-tax Provisions [August 13, 2003]

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Continuing a legislative effort that began in the 107th Congress, the House and Senate in the first session of the 108th passed two distinct versions of an omnibus energy bill (H.R. 6), which would be the first comprehensive energy legislation in more than 10 years. Although Republicans are in the majority in both chambers, the conference on H.R. 6 will be complicated by deep divisions within the Senate on energy policy. Facing numerous amendments and limited floor time, the Senate set aside the energy bill it had been considering in the 108th Congress (S. 14) and passed the text of last year's Senate energy bill (H.R. 4). The House version of H.R. 6, which passed April 11, 2003, includes a key component of the Bush Administration's energy strategy: opening the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) to oil and gas exploration and development The Senate version, approved July 31, 2003, leaves ANWR off-limits to drilling. The electricity provisions of H.R. 6 would continue to change the regulatory requirements for the wholesale electric market. In general, with some differences, both the House and Senate versions would repeal the Public Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) and give the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and state utility commissions access to utility books and records. Both would also repeal the mandatory purchase requirement of the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) when a competitive electric market exists. Automobile and light truck fuel efficiency was the subject of considerable debate in both houses. Several other controversial environmental provisions are contained only in the Senate-passed bill, particularly programs to address global climate change and renewable energy requirements for electricity providers.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Glover, Carol F.

2003-08-13
Nuclear Waste Disposal: Alternatives to Yucca Mountain [February 6, 2009]

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This Congressional Research Service (CRS) report discusses nuclear waste management. "Congress designated Yucca Mountain, NV, as the nation's sole candidate site for a permanent high-level nuclear waste repository in 1987, following years of controversy over the site-selection process. Over the strenuous objections of the State of Nevada, the Department of Energy (DOE) submitted a license application for the proposed Yucca Mountain repository in June 2008 to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). During the 2008 election campaign, now-President Obama lent support to Nevada's fight against the repository, contending in an issue statement that he and now-Vice President Biden 'do not believe that Yucca Mountain is a suitable site.' Under the current nuclear waste program, DOE hopes to begin transporting spent nuclear fuel and other highly radioactive waste to Yucca Mountain by 2020. That schedule is 22 years beyond the 1998 deadline established by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA). Because U.S. nuclear power plants will continue to generate nuclear waste after a repository opens, DOE estimates that all waste could not be removed from existing reactors until about 2066 even under the current Yucca Mountain schedule. Not all the projected waste could be disposed of at Yucca Mountain, however, unless NWPA's current limit on the repository's capacity is increased."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2009-02-06
Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [September 12, 2011]

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"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 541 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. A major concern about the global expansion of nuclear power is the potential spread of nuclear fuel cycle technology--particularly uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing--that could be used for nuclear weapons. Despite 30 years of effort to limit access to uranium enrichment, several undeterred states pursued clandestine nuclear programs, the A.Q. Khan black market network's sales to Iran and North Korea representing the most egregious examples. However, concern over the spread of enrichment and reprocessing technologies may be offset by support for nuclear power as a cleaner and more secure alternative to fossil fuels. […] Congress will have a considerable role in at least four areas of oversight related to fuel cycle proposals. The first is providing funding and oversight of U.S. domestic programs related to expanding nuclear energy in the United States. The second area is policy direction and/or funding for international measures to assure supply. A third set of policy issues may arise in the context of U.S. participation in IFNEC [International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation] or related initiatives. A fourth area in which Congress plays a key role is in the approval of nuclear cooperation agreements. Significant interest in these issues is expected to continue in the 112th Congress."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony; Holt, Mark

2011-09-12
Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [October 19, 2012]

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"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 548 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. […] Congress will have a considerable role in at least four areas of oversight related to fuel cycle proposals. The first is providing funding and oversight of U.S. domestic programs related to expanding nuclear energy in the United States. The second area is policy direction and/or funding for international measures to assure supply. A third set of policy issues may arise in the context of U.S. participation in IFNEC (International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation) or related initiatives. A fourth area in which Congress plays a key role is in the approval of nuclear cooperation agreements. Significant interest in these issues is expected to continue in the 112th Congress."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Andrews, Anthony; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2012-10-19
U.S. and South Korean Cooperation in the World Nuclear Energy Market: Major Policy Considerations [January 28, 2013]

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"A South Korean consortium recently signed a contract to provide four commercial nuclear reactors to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), signaling a new role for South Korea in the world nuclear energy market. The $20 billion deal indicates that South Korea has completed the transition from passive purchaser of turn-key nuclear plants in the 1970s to major nuclear technology supplier, capable of competing with the largest and most experienced nuclear technology companies in the world. The South Korean government reportedly has established a goal for South Korea to capture 20% of the world nuclear power plant market during the next 20 years, and the importance placed by Seoul on the UAE contract was underscored by South Korean President Lee Myung-bak's presence at the signing ceremony in the UAE. […] U.S.-Korean nuclear energy cooperation is conducted under a '123 agreement' required by Section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. […] As with most U.S. 123 agreements, the existing U.S.-Korean agreement requires U.S. consent for any reprocessing or enrichment activities related to U.S.-supplied materials and technology. Korea is requesting that the new 123 agreement include U.S. advance consent for future Korean civilian reprocessing and enrichment activities. The United States has opposed the idea, on grounds of general nonproliferation policy and the complications that such activities might pose for other security issues on the Korean peninsula. To comply with the 90-day congressional review requirement, a new agreement probably needs to be submitted to Congress by spring 2013. Any lapse in the agreement could affect exports of U.S. nuclear materials and reactor components to Korea, potentially affecting ongoing construction of the UAE project."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2013-01-28
Fukushima Nuclear Disaster [January 18, 2012]

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"The huge earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station on March 11, 2011, knocked out backup power systems that were needed to cool the reactors at the plant, causing three of them to undergo fuel melting, hydrogen explosions, and radioactive releases. Radioactive contamination from the Fukushima plant forced the evacuation of communities up to 25 miles away and affected up to 100,000 residents, although it did not cause any immediate deaths. […] The United States and other countries, as well as the International Atomic Energy Agency, are providing assistance to Japan to deal with the nuclear disaster. U.S. assistance has included transport of pumps, boron, fresh water, remote cameras, use of Global Hawk surveillance drones, evacuation support, medical support, and decontamination and radiation monitoring equipment. Studies of the Fukushima disaster have identified design changes, response actions, and other safety improvements that could have reduced or eliminated the amount of radioactivity released from the plant. As a result, Fukushima has prompted a reexamination of nuclear plant safety requirements around the world, including in the United States."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Campbell, Richard J.; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2012-01-18
Nuclear Energy Cooperation with Foreign Countries: Issues for Congress [August 10, 2011]

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"U.S. civil nuclear cooperation agreements ('123' agreements), which are bilateral agreements with other governments or multilateral organizations, have several important goals, including promoting the U.S. nuclear industry, which is increasingly dependent on foreign customers and suppliers, and preventing nuclear proliferation. Increased international interest in nuclear power has generated concern that additional countries may obtain fuel-making technology that could also be used to produce fissile material for nuclear weapons. Ensuring the peaceful use of transferred nuclear technology has long been a major U.S. objective, and Congress has played a key role. For example, the Nuclear Nonproliferation Act of 1978, which amended the Atomic Energy Act (AEA) of 1954, added new requirements for nuclear cooperation with the United States. Moreover, the United States has been a longtime proponent of restrictive international nuclear export policies. In recent years, some observers and Members of Congress have advocated that the United States adopt new conditions for civil nuclear cooperation. [...] This report discusses broad themes related to U.S. nuclear cooperation with other countries."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.; Holt, Mark; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2011-08-10
Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [June 22, 2011]

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"Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) calls for disposal of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository. NWPA established the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM) in the Department of Energy (DOE) to develop such a repository, which would be licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The program's civilian costs were required to be covered by a fee on nuclear-generated electricity, paid into the Nuclear Waste Fund. Amendments to NWPA in 1987 restricted DOE's repository site studies to Yucca Mountain in Nevada. […] For FY2012, the Administration again requested no funding for the Yucca Mountain project, but the House Appropriations Committee provided $25 million to DOE and $10 million to NRC to continue the Yucca Mountain licensing process. The Committee bill specifies that the funds may not be used for closing out licensing activities unless the NRC commissioners accept DOE's license withdrawal motion, 'or for actions that irrevocably remove the possibility that Yucca Mountain may be a repository option in the future.'"

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2011-06-22
Nuclear Energy Cooperation with Foreign Countries: Issues for Congress [July 11, 2011]

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"U.S. civil nuclear cooperation agreements ('123' agreements), which are bilateral agreements with other governments or multilateral organizations, have several important goals, including promoting the U.S. nuclear industry, which is increasingly dependent on foreign customers and suppliers, and preventing nuclear proliferation. Increased international interest in nuclear power has generated concern that additional countries may obtain fuel-making technology that could also be used to produce fissile material for nuclear weapons. Ensuring the peaceful use of transferred nuclear technology has long been a major U.S. objective, and Congress has played a key role. For example, the Nuclear Nonproliferation Act of 1978, which amended the Atomic Energy Act (AEA) of 1954, added new requirements for nuclear cooperation with the United States. Moreover, the United States has been a longtime proponent of restrictive international nuclear export policies. In recent years, some observers and Members of Congress have advocated that the United States adopt new conditions for civil nuclear cooperation. These would include requiring potential recipients of U.S. civil nuclear technology to forgo fuel-making enrichment and reprocessing technologies and to bring into force an Additional Protocol to their International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards agreements. Such protocols augment the IAEA's legal authority to inspect nuclear facilities. Civil nuclear commerce, particularly reactor transfers, may not be a near-term proliferation threat: all but three states (India, Israel, and Pakistan, all of which have nuclear weapons) are parties to the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT); all legitimate transfers of nuclear technology to NPT non-nuclear-weapon states are subject to IAEA safeguards; and no country with comprehensive safeguards in place and a record in good standing with the IAEA has used declared nuclear facilities to produce fissile material for weapons."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.; Holt, Mark; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2011-07-11
Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [September 12, 2009]

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"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 541 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. A major concern about the global expansion of nuclear power is the potential spread of nuclear fuel cycle technology-particularly uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing-that could be used for nuclear weapons. Despite 30 years of effort to limit access to uranium enrichment, several undeterred states pursued clandestine nuclear programs, the A.Q. Khan black market network's sales to Iran and North Korea representing the most egregious examples. However, concern over the spread of enrichment and reprocessing technologies may be offset by support for nuclear power as a cleaner and more secure alternative to fossil fuels. Both the Bush and Obama Administrations have expressed optimism that advanced nuclear technologies being developed by the Department of Energy may offer proliferation resistance. Both Administrations have also pursued international incentives and agreements intended to minimize the spread of fuel cycle facilities. Proposals offering countries access to nuclear power and thus the fuel cycle have ranged from requesting formal commitments by these countries to forswear sensitive enrichment and reprocessing technology, to a de facto approach in which states would not operate fuel cycle facilities but make no explicit commitments, to no restrictions at all. Countries joining the U.S.- led Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), now the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), signed a statement of principles that represented a shift in U.S. policy by not requiring participants to forgo domestic fuel cycle programs. Whether developing states will find existing proposals attractive enough to forgo what they see as their 'inalienable' right to develop nuclear technology for peaceful purposes remains to be seen."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony; Holt, Mark

2011-09-12
U.S.-China Nuclear Cooperation Agreement [Updated September 6, 2007]

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"This CRS Report, updated as warranted, discusses the agreement on civilian nuclear cooperation with the People's Republic of China (PRC) by focusing on congressional roles in crafting and carrying out the agreement. Almost 13 years passed between the time that President Reagan submitted the agreement to Congress in July 1985 and its implementation in March 1998 under the Clinton Administration. Key developments in the U.S.-China nuclear cooperation agreement were timed for diplomatic summits between U.S. Presidents and PRC leaders. On April 30, 1984, President Reagan witnessed the initialing of the agreement. Secretary of Energy John Herrington signed the agreement on July 23, 1985. On July 24, 1985, President Reagan submitted to Congress the 'Agreement between the United States and the People's Republic of China Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy.' Consideration of whether a Presidential certification would be the centerpiece of a summit in 1997 advanced the agreement's implementation. President Clinton, on January 12, 1998, signed certifications (as required by P.L. 99-183) on China's nuclear nonproliferation policy and practices to implement the agreement. Clinton also issued a certification and waived a sanction imposed after the 1989 Tiananmen Crackdown (as required by P.L. 101-246). Congressional review ended on March 18, 1998, and the agreement has since been implemented."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Kan, Shirley

2007-09-06
Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [June 9, 2006]

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"Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) calls for disposal of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository. NWPA established an office in the Department of Energy (DOE) to develop such a repository and required the program's civilian costs to be covered by a fee on nuclear-generated electricity, paid into the Nuclear Waste Fund. Amendments to NWPA in 1987 restricted DOE's repository site studies to Yucca Mountain in Nevada. DOE is studying numerous scientific issues at Yucca Mountain in preparing a license application to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for the planned repository. Questions about the site include the likelihood of earthquakes, volcanoes, water infiltration, and human intrusion."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2006-06-09
Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [Updated August 8, 2006]

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"Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) calls for disposal of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository. NWPA established an office in the Department of Energy (DOE) to develop such a repository and required the program's civilian costs to be covered by a fee on nuclear-generated electricity, paid into the Nuclear Waste Fund. Amendments to NWPA in 1987 restricted DOE's repository site studies to Yucca Mountain in Nevada. DOE is studying numerous scientific issues at Yucca Mountain in preparing a license application to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for the planned repository. Questions about the site include the likelihood of earthquakes, volcanoes, water infiltration, and human intrusion."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2006-08-08
Energy Implications of Proposed U.S.-India Nuclear Cooperation Agreement [March 22, 2006]

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"As you requested March 16, this memo provides a brief overview of the major energy security and environmental implications of the proposed U.S.-India nuclear cooperation agreement...President Bush announced plans for U.S. nuclear cooperation with India on July 18, 2005, as one part of a new global partnership with India, which is intended to improve overall U.S.-India relations. The President said he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies.' The nuclear cooperation agreement cannot be implemented without congressional action. Because India is not a signatory to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and has used its nuclear power program to develop nuclear weapons, the United States and other nuclear supplier nations have restricted India's access to foreign nuclear technology and materials since the early 1970s. As a result, India's nuclear power program has relied on indigenous heavy water reactor designs based on small imported reactors that were supplied before the international cutoff. India had set a goal of 10,000 megawatts of nuclear generating capacity by 2000, but by 2005 only 2,550 megawatts of nuclear capacity was on line."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Parker, Larry, 1954-

2006-03-22
Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [Updated September 19, 2006]

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"Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) calls for disposal of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository. NWPA established an office in the Department of Energy (DOE) to develop such a repository and required the program's civilian costs to be covered by a fee on nuclear-generated electricity, paid into the Nuclear Waste Fund. The Administration proposed legislation on April 5, 2006, to repeal the statutory cap on the amount of waste at Yucca Mountain, reduce the scope of environmental reviews for the repository, change budget procedures so that program funding could be increased more easily, exempt nuclear waste sent to Yucca Mountain from disposal requirements under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and allow preemption of state and local transportation requirements. Enactment of the legislation is necessary to meet the new goal of opening the repository by 2017, according to DOE. This report replaces CRS Issue Brief IB92059, Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal, by Mark Holt."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2006-09-19
Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [Updated January 30, 2008]

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"After several decades of decline and disfavor, nuclear power is attracting renewed interest. New permit applications for 30 reactors have been filed in the United States, and another 150 are planned or proposed globally, with about a dozen more already under construction. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by provisions in the 2005 Energy Policy Act authorizing streamlined licensing that combine construction and operating permits, and tax credits for production from advanced nuclear power facilities. Moreover, the U.S. Department of Energy proposes to spend billions of dollars to develop the next generation of nuclear power technology."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony

2008-01-30
Nuclear Power: Outlook for New U.S. Reactors [Updated November 6, 2006]

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"Nearly three decades after the most recent order was placed for a new nuclear power plant in the United States, several utilities are now expressing interest in building a total of up to 30 new reactors. The renewed interest in nuclear power has resulted primarily from higher prices for natural gas, improved operation of existing reactors, and uncertainty about future restrictions on coal emissions. A substantial tax credit and other incentives for nuclear generation provided by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) are also likely to improve the economic viability of qualifying new reactors. New nuclear plant applications can also take advantage of amendments to the Atomic Energy Act made in the early 1990s to reduce licensing delays. Currently, there are 103 licensed and operable power reactors at 65 plant sites in 31 states, generating about one-fifth of U.S. electricity. Although no new U.S. reactors have started up since 1996, U.S. nuclear electricity generation has since grown by more than 20%. Much of this additional output resulted from reduced downtime, notably through shorter refueling outages. Licensed commercial reactors generated electricity at an average of 89.4% of their total capacity in 2005, after averaging about 75% in the mid-1990s and about 65% in the mid-1980s."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Parker, Larry, 1954-

2006-11-06
Nuclear Power: Outlook for New U.S. Reactors [Updated March 9, 2007]

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"Nearly three decades after the most recent order was placed for a new nuclear power plant in the United States, several utilities are now expressing interest in building a total of up to 30 new reactors. The renewed interest in nuclear power has resulted primarily from higher prices for natural gas, improved operation of existing reactors, and uncertainty about future restrictions on coal emissions. A substantial tax credit and other incentives for nuclear generation provided by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) are also likely to improve the economic viability of qualifying new reactors. New nuclear plant applications can also take advantage of amendments to the Atomic Energy Act made in the early 1990s to reduce licensing delays. Currently, there are 103 licensed and operable power reactors at 65 plant sites in 31 states, generating about one-fifth of U.S. electricity. […] The nuclear production tax credit in the Energy Policy Act could have a significant impact on the economic viability of new nuclear power plants. […] Other factors will also be important in the commercial decision to invest in new nuclear plants, such as fossil fuel prices and the regulatory environment for both nuclear power and future fossil fuel-fired generation."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Parker, Larry, 1954-

2007-03-09
U.S.-China Nuclear Cooperation Agreement [Updated January 31, 2007]

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"This CRS Report, updated as warranted, discusses the agreement on civilian nuclear cooperation with the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) by focusing on congressional roles in crafting and carrying out the agreement. Some Members have been concerned about U.S. nuclear cooperation with China in the context of China's practices related to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Members also have been interested in how Congress reviewed the agreement with China as well as how this experience might apply to other similar agreements, such as that with India. Congress also exercises oversight of exchanges with China in the nuclear area conducted by the Department of Energy and its National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA). Some Members have considered whether financing by the U.S. Export-Import Bank should support nuclear exports to China."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Kan, Shirley

2007-01-31
Nuclear Power: Outlook for New U.S. Reactors [May 31, 2006]

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"Nearly three decades after the most recent order was placed for a new nuclear power plant in the United States, several utilities are now expressing interest in building a total of up to 20 new reactors. The renewed interest in nuclear power has resulted primarily from sharply rising prices for natural gas, improved operation of existing reactors, and uncertainty about future restrictions on coal emissions. A substantial tax credit for nuclear generation provided by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) is also likely to improve the economic viability of qualifying new reactors. New nuclear plant applications can also take advantage of amendments to the Atomic Energy Act made in the early 1990s to reduce licensing delays. Currently, there are 103 licensed power reactors at 65 plant sites in 31 states, generating about one-fifth of U.S. electricity. Although no new U.S. reactors have started up since 1996, U.S. nuclear electricity generation has since grown by more than 20%. Much of this additional output resulted from reduced downtime, notably through shorter refueling outages. Licensed commercial reactors generated electricity at an average of 89.4% of their total capacity in 2005, after averaging about 75% in the mid-1990s and about 65% in the mid-1980s. […] Any substantial mandatory greenhouse gas control program would probably affect the cost of new coal-fired and natural gas-fired generation relative to nuclear power, particularly if nuclear power is assumed to have no greenhouse gas emissions. Continued delays in nuclear waste disposal facilities -- forcing spent fuel to be stored at plant sites -- could also affect the decision to construct new reactors. This report will not be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parker, Larry, 1954-; Holt, Mark

2006-05-31
U.S. and South Korean Cooperation in the World Nuclear Energy Market: Major Policy Considerations [January 21, 2010]

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"A South Korean consortium recently signed a contract to provide four commercial nuclear reactors to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), signaling a new role for South Korea in the world nuclear energy market. [...] In the 1970s, South Korea launched its nuclear power program through the government-owned Korea Electric Company (now Korea Electric Power Corporation, KEPCO), which purchased the country's first nuclear power units from Westinghouse. [...] Combustion Engineering won the competition for the Korean standard design contract by agreeing to full technology transfer, according to KEPCO. The technology transfer program resulted in the development of the APR-1400 power plant, which is the design purchased by the UAE. [...] Because the AP-1400 is based on a U.S. design, U.S. export controls will continue to apply. Westinghouse plans to seek the necessary authorization from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to transfer the technology to the UAE. The UAE recently reached a nuclear cooperation agreement with the United States in which the country agreed not to develop fuel cycle facilities to support its planned nuclear power program, which could ease weapons proliferation concerns. The UAE program may establish a precedent for U.S. policy on future Korean exports to nonnuclear power nations, which is likely to be of continuing congressional interest. The Korea-UAE nuclear plant sale also has been cited by the Korean news media as an important consideration in upcoming negotiations on the renewal of the U.S.-Korea nuclear cooperation agreement, a prerequisite under Section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act for nuclear trade."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark

2010-01-21

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