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Vietnam PNTR Status and WTO Accession: Issues and Implications for the United States [December 15, 2006]

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"On December 8, 2006, the House passed legislation (212-184) to grant Vietnam permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) status as part of a more comprehensive trade bill (H.R. 6406). Pursuant to H.Res. 1100, the bill was then coupled with a tax-extension bill (H.R. 6111) and sent to the Senate. The Senate passed the combined bills on December 8 (79-9). Before PNTR can go into effect the President must sign the legislation into law, make a determination that Vietnam is eligible to receive it, and then issue a proclamation to that effect. […] It could help the United States in that Vietnam would be obligated to apply WTO [World Trade Organization] rules in its trade. PNTR status from the United States would provide Vietnam more predictability its growing trade relations with the United States and would shed a legacy of the cold war. For the United States, PNTR would be another in a series of steps the United States has taken in trade and foreign policy to normalize relations with Vietnam and place distance between current relations and the Vietnam War. During the congressional debate on PNTR Members raised issues regarding the conditions for Vietnam's entry into the WTO, other issues pertaining to the U.S.- Vietnam economic relationship, and other aspects of the overall U.S.-Vietnam relationship."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-12-15
Vietnam PNTR Status and WTO Accession: Issues and Implications for the United States [Updated October 24, 2006]

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"On May 31, 2006, U.S. and Vietnamese negotiators signed a bilateral agreement on the conditions for Vietnam's accession (entry) into the World Trade Organization (WTO). The agreement is just one in a number of steps that Vietnam must take to complete its 11-year quest to join the multilateral trade body. However, the agreement with the United States was the last and, seemingly, the most difficult of the bilateral agreements that Vietnam had to negotiate with 28 WTO members (including the European Union (EU) counting as one but representing twenty-five countries). Thus, the U.S.-Vietnam bilateral agreement on WTO accession signifies that Vietnam's accession process is drawing to a close. The U.S. Congress has no direct role in Vietnam's accession to the WTO. Congressional approval of the bilateral agreement is not required for it to go into effect. Vietnam's accession to the WTO would require the United States and Vietnam to adhere to WTO rules in their bilateral trade relations, including not imposing unilateral measures, such as quotas on textile imports, that have not been sanctioned by the WTO."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-10-24
Caspian Oil and Gas: Production and Prospects [March 4, 2005]

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"There is a likelihood of relatively large reserves of crude oil and natural gas in the Caspian Sea region, and a consequent large increase in oil and natural gas production from that area. Because diversity of energy sources and energy security are considerations in Congressional deliberations on energy policy, this prospect could play a role in such discussions. However, there are obstacles to increases in Caspian Sea region production of oil and gas that may slow development. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2005-03-04
Caspian Oil and Gas: Production and Prospects [September 8, 2006]

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"There is a likelihood of relatively large reserves of crude oil and natural gas in the Caspian Sea region, and a consequent large increase in oil and natural gas production from that area. Because diversity of energy sources and energy security are considerations in Congressional deliberations on energy policy, this prospect could play a role in such discussions. However, there are obstacles to increases in Caspian Sea region production of oil and gas that may slow development. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-09-08
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated December 16, 2005]

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"One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, further increases in 2004-2005, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. The FY2006 Budget Resolution (H.Con.Res. 95, H.Rept. 109-62) required that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult without including ANWR legislation. On October 19, 2005, the Senate Committee reported its title for reconciliation (S. 1932) to the Senate Budget Committee. The Committee's title would open ANWR; supporters designed it to meet the savings target and Senate procedural restrictions on matters included in reconciliation bills."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

2005-12-16
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated July 7, 2006]

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"One part of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological, recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in energy prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, more price increases in 2004-2006, and energy infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law prohibits oil and gas leasing in the Refuge. In the first session of the 109th Congress, development advocates added ANWR development to the conference report for the Defense appropriations bill (H.R. 2863). The House passed the conference report with the ANWR provision, but the ANWR title was removed from the bill (P.L. 109-148) after failure of a cloture motion in the Senate. In the second session, on March 16, 2006, the Senate passed S.Con.Res. 83, the FY2007 budget resolution. Its sole reconciliation instruction was to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, and it assumed revenues from leasing in ANWR. On May 25, 2006, the House passed the American-Made Energy and Good Jobs Act (H.R. 5429), which would open ANWR to development."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

2006-07-06
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 108th Congress [Updated January 13, 2004]

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"One major element of the energy debate in the 108th Congress is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in prices of gasoline and natural gas from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and further increases in 2003, have renewed the ANWR debate for the first time in 7 years; however, its development has been debated for over 40 years. Few U.S. locations onshore stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. The first key vote in the 108th Congress came in the Senate. On March 19, the Senate passed an amendment by Senator Boxer to strip language from the Senate Budget Resolution that would have facilitated subsequent passage of ANWR development legislation. The second group of votes came April 10 in the House on the way to passage of a comprehensive energy bill (H.R. 6). The House adopted an amendment by Representative Wilson (NM) to limit certain features of federal leasing development to no more than 2,000 acres. It rejected an amendment by Representative Markey to delete ANWR development from the bill. The Senate passed its version of H.R. 6 by adopting the provisions of the Senate's version of omnibus energy legislation from the 107th Congress. The Senate version contained no provision to open the Refuge to development. The conference committee did not include ANWR development in the conference report. Many observers feel that passage of ANWR development legislation in the remainder of the 108th Congress is now unlikely. If Congress does not act, the status quo, which prohibits development unless Congress acts, will continue."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

2004-01-13
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated July 15, 2005]

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"One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources, along with its recreational and subsistence values. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and increases again in 2004-2005, have renewed the ANWR debate; however, its development has been debated for more than 40 years. Few onshore U.S. locations stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. On April 20, 2005, the House rejected the Markey/Johnson amendment (H.Amdt. 73) to strike the ANWR title from H.R. 6, the omnibus energy bill, which passed the House passed on April 22. The Senate version of H.R. 6 contained no ANWR title. On March 16, 2005, the Senate rejected the Cantwell amendment (striking language related to ANWR development, S.Amdt. 168, yeas 49, nays 51, Roll Call #52) to S.Con.Res. 18, the Senate budget resolution. The amendment would have struck §102(a)(4) instructing the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. As a result, development proponents may be able to include ANWR development in a reconciliation bill, since reconciliation bills are not subject to filibusters. In the end, the House and Senate approved a requirement that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult to meet without passing ANWR legislation."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

2005-07-15
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated March 11, 2005]

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"One major element of the energy debate in the 109th Congress is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources, along with its recreational and subsistence values. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in prices of gasoline and natural gas from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and increases again in 2004- 2005, have renewed the ANWR debate; however, its development has been debated for more than 40 years. Few onshore U.S. locations stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. On March 9, 2005, the House Budget Committee ordered the FY2006 budget resolution (number not yet available) to be reported; the measure did not contain assumptions regarding ANWR revenues. A day later, the Senate Budget Committee ordered S.Con.Res. 18 to be reported. Its version of the resolution contained instructions to the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources that assumed revenues from the sale of ANWR leases."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

2005-03-11
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated January 31, 2006]

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"One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, further increases in 2004-2005, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids oil and gas leasing in the Refuge. The FY2006 Budget Resolution (H.Con.Res. 95, H.Rept. 109-62) required that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult without including ANWR legislation. The Senate Budget Committee reported a title in S. 1932 (reconciliation) to open ANWR; supporters designed it to meet the savings target and Senate procedural restrictions on matters included in reconciliation bills."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

2006-01-31
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated January 26, 2006]

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"One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, further increases in 2004-2005, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. The FY2006 Budget Resolution (H.Con.Res. 95, H.Rept. 109-62) required that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult without including ANWR legislation. The Senate Budget Committee reported a title in S. 1932 (reconciliation) to open ANWR; supporters designed it to meet the savings target and Senate procedural restrictions on matters included in reconciliation bills."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

2006-01-26
Russia's Cutoff of Natural Gas to Ukraine: Context and Implications [February 15, 2006]

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"This report examines issues surrounding Russia's request for higher prices for natural gas that it exports to Ukraine, which culminated in Russia's temporary cutoff of supplies to Ukraine in January 2006. Implications for the two countries and for U.S. interests are explored. The report may be updated as events warrant. Related products include CRS Report RL32845, 'Ukraine's Orange Revolution and U.S. Policy', by Steven Woehrel; and CRS Issue Brief IB92089, 'Russia', by Stuart D. Goldman."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nichol, James P.; Woehrel, Steven J.; Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-02-15
Caspian Oil and Gas: Production & Prospects [April 9, 2002]

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"There is a prospect of exceedingly large reserves of crude oil and natural gas in the Caspian Sea region, and a consequent large increase in the production of oil and gas from that area. Because diversity of energy sources is a consideration in Congressional deliberations on energy policy, this prospect could play a role in policy discussions. However, there are notable obstacles to increases in Caspian Sea region production of oil and gas both now and in the future that may slow development."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2002-04-09
Arctic Petroleum Technology Developments [January 23, 2006]

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"Congressional debate over opening the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) on a portion of the North Slope of Alaska to petroleum exploration and development is under way in the 109th Congress. Current law prohibits such development in ANWR. The North Slope is home to the two largest oil fields in North America and to the largest U.S. oil field discovered in the last decade. The North Slope also is home to a diverse, unique, and fragile ecosystem -- resulting in extensive federal, state, and local regulatory protection. Partly due to increased restrictions since the discovery of Prudhoe Bay, operators have developed less environmentally intrusive ways to recover arctic oil, primarily through innovations in several types of technology. […] Proponents of opening ANWR to energy development maintain that these technologies substantially mitigate the effects on the environment of oil and gas operations, and assert that the increase in domestically-produced energy would be worth any minimal environmental impacts. Opponents counter that a facility of any size would still be an industrial site and an intrusion on the ecosystem, and argue that the need for gravel and scarce water, the permanent roads, ports, and airstrips that would follow, and the unknown number of spills would destroy vegetation, contaminate water resources, and interfere with wildlife."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

2006-01-23
Russian Oil and Gas Challenges [February 22, 2006]

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"Russia is a major player in world energy markets. It has more proven natural gas reserves than any other country, is among the top ten in proven oil reserves, is the largest exporter of natural gas, the second largest oil exporter, and the third largest energy consumer. Energy exports have been a major driver of Russia's economic growth over the last five years, as Russian oil production has risen strongly and world oil prices have been very high. This type of growth has made the Russian economy dependent on oil and natural gas exports and vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices. Russia's ability to maintain and expand its capacity to produce and to export energy faces difficulties. Russia's oil and gas fields are aging. Modern western energy technology has not been fully implemented. There is insufficient export capacity in the crude oil pipeline system controlled by Russia's state-owned pipeline monopoly, Transneft. And, there is insufficient investment capital for improving and expanding Russian oil and gas production and pipeline systems."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-02-22
Russian Oil and Gas Challenges [January 3, 2006]

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"Russia is a major player in world energy markets. It has more proven natural gas reserves than any other country, is among the top ten in proven oil reserves, is the largest exporter of natural gas, the second largest oil exporter, and the third largest energy consumer. Energy exports have been a major driver of Russia's economic growth over the last five years, as Russian oil production has risen strongly and world oil prices have been very high. This type of growth has made the Russian economy dependent on oil and natural gas exports and vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices. Russia's ability to maintain and expand its capacity to produce and to export energy faces difficulties. Russia's oil and gas fields are aging. Modern western energy technology has not been fully implemented. There is insufficient export capacity in the crude oil pipeline system controlled by Russia's state-owned pipeline monopoly, Transneft. And, there is insufficient investment capital for improving and expanding Russian oil and gas production and pipeline systems."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-01-03
Russian Oil and Gas Challenges [May 16, 2007]

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"Russia is a major player in world energy markets. It has more proven natural gas reserves than any other country, is among the top ten in proven oil reserves, is the largest exporter of natural gas, the second largest oil exporter, and the third largest energy consumer. Energy exports have been a major driver of Russia's economic growth over the last five years, as Russian oil production has risen strongly and world oil prices have been very high. This type of growth has made the Russian economy dependent on oil and natural gas exports and vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices. The Russian government has moved to take control of the country's energy supplies. It broke up the previously large energy company Yukos and acquired its main oil production subsidiary. The Duma voted to give Gazprom, the statecontrolled natural gas monopoly the exclusive right to export natural gas; Russia moved to limit participation by foreign companies in oil and gas production and Gazprom gained majority control of the Sakhalin energy projects. Russia has agreed with Germany to supply Germany and, eventually, the UK by building a natural gas pipeline under the Baltic Sea, bypassing Ukraine and Poland. In late 2006 and early 2007, Russia cut off and/or threatened to cut off gas or oil supplies going to and/or through Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, and Belarus in the context of price and/or transit negotiations -- actions that damaged its reputation as a reliable energy supplier. Russia's ability to maintain and expand its capacity to produce and to export energy faces difficulties. Russia's oil and gas fields are aging. Modern western energy technology has not been fully implemented. There is insufficient export capacity in the crude oil pipeline system controlled by Russia's state-owned pipeline monopoly, Transneft. And, there is insufficient investment capital for improving and expanding Russian oil and gas production and pipeline systems."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2007-05-16
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Legislative Actions Through the 109th Congress [Updated April 9, 2007]

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"A major part of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but increases in gasoline and natural gas prices, terrorist attacks, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Current law forbids energy leasing in ANWR. This report is intended to provide a summary of legislative attempts to address issues of energy development and preservation in the Refuge from the 95th Congress through the 109th Congress, with emphasis on the 107th through 109th Congresses. This history has been cited by many, in and out of Congress, as background for issues that may be raised in the 110th Congress. The report contains little analysis of the substance of this issue, which is covered in other CRS reports. See CRS Report RL33872, 'Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): New Directions in the 110th Congress', for information on actions in the 110th Congress relative to ANWR."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946- . . .

2007-04-09
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): New Directions in the 110th Congress [February 8, 2007]

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"One part of the energy debate has been whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska -- and if so, under what conditions -- or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological, recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in energy prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, more price increases in 2004-2006, and energy infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law prohibits oil and gas leasing in the Refuge. Changes in party control in the 110th Congress have encouraged those who seek wilderness protection for this portion of ANWR. However, any change from the status quo appears just as difficult for proponents of wilderness designation who seek to provide additional statutory protection as it did for development advocates in the 109th Congress."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

2007-02-08
Vietnam PNTR Status and WTO Accession: Issues and Implications for the United States [Updated November 14, 2006]

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From the Summary: "The 109th Congress is debating legislation (H.R. 5602 and S. 3495) to extend permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) to Vietnam ahead of President Bush's visit to Vietnam on November 18. PNTR is being debated in the context of Vietnam's imminent accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). In early November 2006, the WTO General Council approved Vietnam's membership package, putting Vietnam on track to formally accede (enter) in late December, regardless of whether the U.S. extends PNTR to Vietnam. On November 13, 2006, under suspension of the rules, a House vote on H.R. 5602 fell short of the two-thirds majority necessary for passage. Some expect the House to take up the measure again on November 15 under normal procedures, which would require a simple majority vote. […] During the congressional debate on PNTR Members might raise issues regarding the conditions for Vietnam's entry into the WTO and other issues pertaining to the U.S.-Vietnam economic relationship and other aspects of the overall U.S.-Vietnam relationship. The Congress has several options on how to act on this issue."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-11-14
Vietnam PNTR Status and WTO Accession: Issues and Implications for the United States [Updated August 2, 2006]

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From the Summary: "On May 31, 2006, U.S. and Vietnamese negotiators signed a bilateral agreement on the conditions for Vietnam's accession (entry) into the World Trade Organization (WTO). The agreement is just one in a number of steps that Vietnam must take to complete its 11-year quest to join the multilateral trade body. However, the agreement with the United States was the 'last' and, seemingly, the most difficult of the bilateral agreements that Vietnam had to negotiate with twenty-eight WTO members (including the European Union (EU) counting as one but representing twenty-five countries). Thus, the U.S.-Vietnam bilateral agreement on WTO accession signifies that Vietnam's accession process is drawing to a close. […] Accession to the WTO would afford Vietnam the protection of the multilateral system of rules in its trade relations with other WTO members, including the United States. It would help the United States in that Vietnam would be obligated to apply WTO rules in its trade. PNTR [permanent normal trade relations] status from the United States would provide Vietnam more predictability its growing trade relations with the United States and would shed a legacy of the cold war. For the United States, PNTR would be another in a series of steps the United States has taken in trade and foreign policy to normalize relations with Vietnam and place distance between current relations and the Vietnam War. During the congressional debate on PNTR Members might raise issues regarding the conditions for Vietnam's entry into the WTO and other issues pertaining to the U.S.-Vietnam economic relationship and other aspects of the overall U.S.-Vietnam relationship. Legislation (S. 3495 and H.R. 5602) regarding PNTR status for Vietnam has been introduced in the 109th Congress. The Congress has several options on how to act on this issue."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Gelb, Bernard A.

2006-08-02
Russian Natural Gas: Regional Dependence [Updated January 18, 2007]

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From the Summary: "Russia is the dominant natural gas supplier to Europe and neighboring former Soviet states, as well as a major provider of oil. Some countries are entirely or largely dependent upon Russian energy supplies, particularly other Soviet successor states. As such, Russia has some ability to dictate natural gas prices. Russia cut off the gas supply to Ukraine and to Moldova in January 2006 and threatened to cut off gas supplies to Belarus and Georgia during late 2006 price negotiations. These and other actions in the interim damaged Russia's reputation as a reliable energy supplier, spurred importing countries to seek other sources, and provoked criticism that it is using energy as a political tool."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2007-01-18
Russian Natural Gas: Regional Dependence [January 5, 2007]

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From the Summary: "Russia is the dominant natural gas supplier to Europe and neighboring former Soviet states, as well as a major provider of oil. Some countries are entirely or largely dependent upon Russian energy supplies, particularly other Soviet successor states. As such, Russia has some ability to dictate natural gas prices. Russia cut off the gas supply to Ukraine and Moldova in January 2006 and threatened to cut off gas supplies to Belarus and Georgia during late 2006 price negotiations. These and other actions in the interim damaged Russia's reputation as a reliable energy supplier, spurred importing countries to seek other sources, and provoked criticism that it is using energy as a political tool."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gelb, Bernard A.

2007-01-05

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