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Romania: An Overview [Updated June 14, 2022]
From the Document: "With a population of almost 20 million, Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe. After the end of communist rule in 1989, Romania adopted a Euro-Atlantic orientation, joining NATO in 2004 and the European Union (EU) in 2007. Romania's strategic Black Sea location, steadfast commitment to its security partnership with the United States, and shared concerns about Russia make it a key U.S. ally in the region. Romanian officials have unequivocally condemned Russia's 2022 war on Ukraine and have supported EU sanctions against Russia and NATO's enhanced deterrence and defense posture in the eastern part of the alliance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2022-06-14
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European Union and China [Updated February 14, 2022]
From the Document: "The European Union (EU) 'Strategy for Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific', published in September 2021, outlines an agenda to expand economic, security, and political partnerships in a region that is rapidly becoming 'a key player in shaping the international order.' The 27-member EU's increasing attention to the Indo-Pacific unfolds in the context of transatlantic discussions about the direction of relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC, or China) and the implications of U.S.-China tensions for Europe. Many Members of Congress have expressed concerns about China's influence in Europe and the EU, as well as interest in policy options for greater U.S.-EU cooperation regarding China. In recent years, EU views on China appear to have hardened and now mirror more closely U.S. concerns about China's global influence. In a 2019 position paper, the European Commission (the EU's executive body) described China as 'simultaneously ... a cooperation partner with whom the EU has closely aligned objectives, a negotiating partner with whom the EU needs to find a balance of interests, an economic competitor in the pursuit of technological leadership, and a systemic rival promoting alternative models of governance.' [...] Notwithstanding initial suggestions that China's Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) 'facemask diplomacy' and 'vaccine diplomacy' could build goodwill, many analysts assess that the pandemic and other recent developments have further strained EU-China relations. An exchange of sanctions in March 2021 stemming from EU concerns about human rights in China reflected what some observers have described as a low point in relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Barrios, Ricardo; Mix, Derek E. . . .
2022-02-14
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Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations [Updated January 14, 2022]
From the Document: "Like most of the rest of the world, European governments and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. European leaders have characterized the pandemic as Europe's biggest challenge since the Second World War, with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic consequences beyond the public health impact. Members of Congress may be interested in COVID-19's implications for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.- European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Garding, Sarah E. . . .
2022-01-14
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Bulgaria: An Overview [Updated October 6, 2021]
From the Document: "Bulgaria is a Southeastern European country located along the Black Sea. After decades of single-party communist rule and a turbulent transition period during the 1990s, Bulgaria joined NATO in 2004 and the European Union (EU) in 2007. The United States cooperates with Bulgaria on a range of security issues but also has raised concerns over corruption and the rule of law. Bulgaria has been in a political stalemate for most of 2021. Parliamentary elections in April 2021 and repeat elections in July 2021 did not result in the formation of a government. A third parliamentary election is scheduled for November 14, 2021, along with presidential elections."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-10-06
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Bulgaria: An Overview [Updated June 21, 2021]
From the Document: "Bulgaria is a Southeastern European country located along the Black Sea. After decades of single-party communist rule and a turbulent transition period during the 1990s, Bulgaria joined NATO in 2004 and the European Union (EU) in 2007. The United States cooperates with Bulgaria on a range of security issues but also has raised concerns over corruption and the rule of law."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-06-21
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Three Seas Initiative [Updated April 26, 2021]
From the Document: "The Three Seas Initiative (3SI) is a regional effort in Europe to expand cross-border energy, transportation, and digital infrastructure and boost economic development in the area between the Adriatic Sea, Baltic Sea, and Black Sea. Twelve countries (Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), all of which are members of the European Union (EU), participate in the 3SI. [...] The U.S. government, including some Members of Congress, have indicated strong backing for the 3SI. In November 2020, the House of Representatives passed a bipartisan resolution 'expressing support of the Three Seas Initiative in its efforts to increase energy independence and infrastructure connectivity thereby strengthening the United States and European national security' (H.Res. 672, 116th Congress). Officials from the Biden Administration and the Trump Administration have expressed diplomatic support for the 3SI, and high-level U.S. officials (including then-President Trump in 2017) have joined its annual summits."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Mix, Derek E.
2021-04-26
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Bulgaria: An Overview [Updated April 16, 2021]
From the Document: "Bulgaria is a southeastern European country located along the Black Sea. After decades of single-party communist rule and a turbulent transition period during the 1990s, Bulgaria joined NATO in 2004 and the European Union (EU) in 2007. The United States cooperates with Bulgaria on a range of security issues. At the same time, U.S. officials have urged Bulgaria to strengthen the rule of law."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-04-16
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Kosovo: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 8, 2021]
From the Summary: "Kosovo, a country in the Western Balkans with a predominantly Albanian-speaking population, declared independence from Serbia in 2008, less than a decade after a brief but lethal war. It has since been recognized by about 100 countries. The United States and most European Union (EU) member states recognize Kosovo. Serbia, Russia, China, and various other countries (including five EU member states) do not. [...] Congress was actively involved in debates over the U.S. response to a 1998-1999 conflict in Kosovo and subsequently supported Kosovo's declaration of independence. Today, many Members of Congress continue to support Kosovo through country- or region-specific hearings, congressional visits, and foreign assistance funding levels averaging around $50 million per year since 2015."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-04-08
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Romania: An Overview [April 2, 2021]
From the Document: "Romania is a parliamentary republic with a semi-presidential system; the prime minister leads the government, and a directly elected president is head of state and wields some powers in defense and domestic affairs. Prime Minister Florin Cîțu of the center-right National Liberal Party (PNL) has led the current government since December 2020. President Klaus Iohannis (backed by PNL) was elected to a second five-year term in 2019. Romania's bicameral parliament consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Romania has had a volatile political scene over the past few years, characterized by political polarization, unstable governments, and disputes over constitutional prerogatives. From 2017 to 2019, governments led by the center-left Social Democratic Party (PSD) introduced controversial changes to the justice system that drew U.S. and EU criticism and triggered Romania's largest protests since 1989. The PSD government collapsed in late 2019, and PNL-led coalitions have governed since then."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-04-02
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Kosovo: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated March 11, 2021]
From the Overview: "The Republic of Kosovo is a landlocked country in the Western Balkans. Ethnic Albanians comprise about 90% of Kosovo's population, and Serbs and other minority groups comprise about 10%. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, nearly a decade after the end of a brief but lethal conflict between Serbian forces and a Kosovo Albanian insurgency led by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Since 2008, Kosovo has been recognized by more than 100 countries. The United States and most European Union (EU) member states recognize Kosovo. Serbia, Russia, China, and various other countries (including some EU member states) do not. The United States has strongly supported Kosovo's state-building and development efforts, as well as an EU-led dialogue aimed at normalizing Kosovo and Serbia's relations. Kosovo generally regards the United States as a security guarantor and key ally. Congress has maintained interest in Kosovo for many decades--from concerns over Serbia's treatment of ethnic Albanians in the former Yugoslavia to the armed conflict in Kosovo in 1998- 1999 after Yugoslavia disintegrated. Many Members were active in debates over the U.S.- and NATO-led military intervention in the conflict. After Serbian forces withdrew in 1999, many Members backed Kosovo's independence. Today, many in Congress continue to support Kosovo through country- or region-specific hearings, congressional visits, and foreign assistance funding levels averaging around $50 million in recent years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-03-11
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Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations [Updated March 1, 2021]
From the Document: "Like most of the rest of the world, European governments and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. European leaders have characterized the pandemic as Europe's biggest challenge since the Second World War, with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic consequences beyond the public health impact. Members of Congress may be interested in COVID-19's implications for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.- European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Garding, Sarah E. . . .
2021-03-01
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Bulgaria: An Overview [January 13, 2021]
From the Document: "Bulgaria is a southeastern European country located along the Black Sea. After decades of single-party communist rule and a turbulent transition period during the 1990s, Bulgaria joined NATO in 2004 and the European Union (EU) in 2007. The United States cooperates with Bulgaria on a range of security issues. At the same time, U.S. officials have urged Bulgaria to strengthen the rule of law."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2021-01-13
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Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations [Updated December 29, 2020]
From the Document: "Like most of the rest of the world, European governments and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. European leaders have characterized the pandemic as Europe's biggest challenge since the Second World War, with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic consequences beyond the public health impact. COVID-19 also has added tensions to a strained U.S.-European partnership. Members of Congress may be interested in COVID-19's implications for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.-European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Garding, Sarah E. . . .
2020-12-29
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Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations [Updated October 28, 2020]
From the Document: "Like most of the rest of the world, European governments and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. European leaders have characterized the pandemic as Europe's biggest challenge since the Second World War, with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic consequences beyond the public health impact. COVID-19 also has added new tensions to an already strained U.S.- European partnership. Members of Congress may be interested in COVID-19's implications for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.-European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Garding, Sarah E. . . .
2020-10-28
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North Macedonia: In Brief [Updated September 9, 2020]
From the Introduction: "The Republic of North Macedonia is a small, landlocked country in southeastern Europe. [...] As of March 27, 2020, it is the newest member of NATO. Formerly one of Yugoslavia's six constituent republics, North Macedonia became independent in 1991 and largely avoided the violence that devastated other parts of the region. Its multiethnic population includes Slavic Macedonians (estimated to comprise about 65% of the population, although precise figures are disputed) and Albanians (an estimated 25%), as well as Turkish, Roma, Serb, Bosniak, and other minority groups. The country embraced a Euro-Atlantic foreign policy orientation early on and became the regional front-runner for membership in the European Union (EU) and NATO. By the 2000s, however, North Macedonia's Euro-Atlantic integration had lagged due to a seemingly intractable bilateral dispute with neighboring Greece (an EU and NATO member) over use of the name 'Macedonia.' Some analysts contend that North Macedonia's loss of a clear EU and NATO membership perspective contributed to a period of reform drift and democratic backsliding that began in the late 2000s and culminated in a protracted political crisis from 2015 to 2017."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2020-09-09
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Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations [August 28, 2020]
From the Document: "Like most of the rest of the world, European governments and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. European leaders have characterized the pandemic as Europe's biggest challenge since the Second World War, with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic consequences beyond the public health impact. COVID-19 also has added new tensions to an already strained U.S.- European partnership. Members of Congress may be interested in COVID-19's implications for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.-European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Garding, Sarah E. . . .
2020-08-28
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Three Seas Initiative [May 12, 2020]
From the Document: "The Three Seas Initiative (3SI) is a regional effort in Europe to expand cross-border energy, transportation, and digital infrastructure and boost economic development in the area between the Adriatic Sea, Baltic Sea, and Black Sea. Twelve countries (Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), all of which are members of the European Union (EU), participate in the 3SI."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Mix, Derek E.
2020-05-12
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Kosovo: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated May 5, 2020]
From the Overview: "The Republic of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, nearly a decade after the end of a brief but lethal conflict between Serbian forces and a Kosovo Albanian insurgency led by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Since 2008, Kosovo has been recognized by more than 100 countries. The United States and most European Union (EU) member states recognize Kosovo. Serbia, Russia, China, and various other countries (including some EU member states) do not. The United States has strongly supported Kosovo's state-building and development efforts, as well as its ongoing dialogue with Serbia to normalize their relations. Kosovo regards the United States as a security guarantor and key ally."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2020-05-05
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Kosovo: In Brief [Updated February 11, 2020]
From the Overview: "The Republic of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, nearly a decade after the end of a brief but lethal conflict between Serbian forces and a Kosovo Albanian insurgency led by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Since 2008, Kosovo has been recognized by more than 100 countries. The United States and most European Union (EU) member states recognize Kosovo, whereas Serbia, Russia, China, and various other countries do not. The United States has strongly supported Kosovo's state-building and development efforts, as well as its ongoing dialogue with Serbia to normalize their relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2020-02-11
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TurkStream: Russia's Newest Gas Pipeline to Europe [Updated February 5, 2020]
From the Document: "Russia's state-owned natural gas company Gazprom has long sought to protect its share of Europe's natural gas market. Along with the controversial Nord Stream 2 project (see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF11138, 'Nord Stream 2: A Fait Accompli?'), Gazprom's TurkStream project could strengthen Russia's foothold in the European energy market, especially southern Europe. It also could cement Turkey's status as a lead recipient of Russian gas, at a time of relatively strong Turkish-Russian relations. Opponents of the TurkStream project, including the Trump Administration and some Members of Congress, have expressed concern that the project could also help erode Ukraine's transit role for natural gas. In 2018, Gazprom supplied more than 40% of the EU's natural gas imports and about 50% of Turkey's. Many analysts maintain that Moscow could use its energy exports as leverage in countries that are dependent upon Russian natural gas. The United States, in turn, has long supported projects to diversify natural gas supplies to Europe and undercut Russia's market dominance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Ratner, Michael; Welt, Cory . . .
2020-02-05
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Kosovo: In Brief [January 9, 2020]
From the Overview: "The Republic of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, nearly a decade after the end of a brief but lethal conflict between Serbian forces and a Kosovo Albanian insurgency led by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Since 2008, Kosovo has been recognized by more than 100 countries. The United States and most European Union (EU) member states recognize Kosovo, whereas Serbia, Russia, China, and various other countries do not. The United States has strongly supported Kosovo's state-building and development efforts, as well as its ongoing dialogue with Serbia to normalize their relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2020-01-09
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Kosovo's Election: Early Results May Signal Major Changes [October 16, 2019]
From the Document: "On October 6, 2019, Kosovo held its fourth parliamentary election since declaring independence from Serbia in 2008 (Serbia does not recognize Kosovo's independence). Opposition parties' strong performance may result in the most consequential government turnover since independence, with implications for the future direction of the European Union (EU)-facilitated dialogue to normalize relations between Kosovo and Serbia. The United States has long supported Kosovo's political and economic development, and U.S. officials and many Members of Congress support and have closely followed the dialogue."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2019-10-16
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North Macedonia: In Brief [May 29, 2019]
From the Document: "The United States has supported North Macedonia since its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 and strongly backs its European Union (EU) and NATO ambitions. (The country's constitutional name was the Republic of Macedonia until February 2019, when it was renamed the Republic of North Macedonia.) On multiple occasions, the United States played a key role in defusing political crises and interethnic tensions in North Macedonia. For more than two decades, a U.S. diplomat led United Nations-brokered negotiations between Greece and then-Macedonia to resolve their bilateral dispute over the latter's use of the name 'Macedonia'. With strong U.S. support, in 2018 North Macedonia and Greece reached the landmark Prespa Agreement, which resulted in the name change and resolved their bilateral dispute."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2019-05-29
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Bosnia and Herzegovina: Background and U.S. Policy [April 15, 2019]
From the Document: "Bosnia and Herzegovina (hereinafter, 'Bosnia') drew heavily on U.S. support after gaining independence from Yugoslavia in 1992. The United States helped end the Bosnian war (1992- 1995), one of the most lethal conflicts in Europe since the Second World War, by leading NATO airstrikes against Bosnian Serb forces, brokering the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995, and deploying 20,000 U.S. troops. Some Members of Congress became involved in policy debates over these measures, and Congress monitored and at times challenged the Bush and Clinton Administrations' response through numerous hearings, resolutions, and legislative proposals. Since 1995, the United States has been a major source of aid to Bosnia and firmly supports its territorial integrity. The United States also supports Bosnia's aspirations for NATO and European Union (EU) membership."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.
2019-04-15
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Turkstream: Another Russian Gas Pipeline to Europe [April 11, 2019]
From the Document: "Russia's state-owned natural gas company Gazprom has long sought to protect its share of Europe's natural gas market. Along with the controversial Nord Stream 2 project (see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF11138, 'Nord Stream 2: A Fait Accompli?'), Gazprom's TurkStream project could strengthen Russia's foothold in the European energy market, especially southern Europe. It also could cement Turkey's status as a lead recipient of Russian gas, at a time of relatively strong Turkish-Russian relations. Opponents of the TurkStream project, including the Trump Administration and some Members of Congress, have expressed concern that the project could also help erode Ukraine's transit role for natural gas. In 2018, Gazprom supplied more than 40% of the EU's natural gas imports and about 50% of Turkey's. Many analysts maintain that Moscow could use its energy exports as leverage in countries that are dependent upon Russian natural gas. The United States, in turn, has long supported projects to diversify natural gas supplies to Europe and undercut Russia's market dominance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Ratner, Michael; Taylor, Beryl E. . . .
2019-04-11
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Serbia: Background and U.S. Relations [November 16, 2018]
"Following the conflicts in the 1990s in the countries of the former Yugoslavia, the prospect of membership in the Euro-Atlantic community and the active presence of the United States and European Union (EU) in the Western Balkans provided a level of stability that allowed most of the countries of the region to adopt economic and political reforms. During this time, Slovenia and Croatia joined the EU. These countries, along with Albania and Montenegro, also joined NATO. Other countries of the Balkans are pursuing EU and NATO membership. However, many observers in Europe and the United States have expressed concern that political stability in the Western Balkans, sometimes referred to as Europe's 'inner courtyard,' remains tenuous. Several of these countries have experienced political crises, sometimes involving third- party interference, as well as stagnating economies, high unemployment, and high rates of emigration. These crises have raised concerns that any decrease in EU or U.S. presence could create a regional vacuum in which transnational crime, radicalization, or terrorism could flourish. Furthermore, some observers are concerned with the growing economic and political role of Russia, China, and other states whose agendas in the Western Balkans might conflict with U.S. and EU interests in the region."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Garding, Sarah E.
2018-11-16
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Serbia: Background and U.S. Relations [October 17, 2018]
"Following the conflicts in the late 1990s in the countries of the former Yugoslavia, the prospect of membership in the Euro-Atlantic community and the active presence of the United States in the Western Balkans provided a level of stability that allowed most of the countries of the region to pursue reform and adopt Western values. During this time, Slovenia and Croatia joined the European Union(EU). These countries, along with Albania, also joined NATO. Montenegro became NATO's 29th member on June 5, 2017. Other nations of the Balkans are at various stages on the path toward EU or NATO membership."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Garding, Sarah E.
2018-10-17
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