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• Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview [December 22, 2014]

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  "Despite increasing evidence linking some deep-well disposal activities with human-induced earthquakes, only a small fraction of the more than 30,000 U.S. wastewater disposal wells appears to be associated with damaging earthquakes. The potential for damaging earthquakes caused by hydraulic fracturing itself, as opposed to deepwell injection of wastewater from oil and gas activities, appears to be much smaller. Hydraulic fracturing intentionally creates fractures in rocks, and induces microseismicity, mostly of less than magnitude 1.0, too small to feel or cause damage. In a few cases, however, fracking has led directly to earthquakes larger than magnitude 2.0, including at sites in Oklahoma, Ohio, England, and Canada. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Underground Injection Control (UIC) program under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates the subsurface injection of fluids to prevent endangerment of drinking water sources. EPA has established regulations for six classes of injection wells, including Class II wells used for the injection of fluids for enhanced oil and gas recovery and wastewater disposal. Most oil and gas states administer the UIC Class II program. The SDWA does not address seismicity, although EPA regulations for certain classes of injection wells require some evaluation of seismic risk. Such requirements do not apply to Class II wells; however, EPA has developed a framework for evaluating seismic risk when reviewing Class II permit applications in states where EPA administers this program. How Congress shapes EPA or other agency efforts to address and possibly mitigate human-caused earthquakes may be an issue in the 114th Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Tiemann, Mary

  2014-12-22
• Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview [January 8, 2015]

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  "The development of unconventional oil and natural gas resources using horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking) has created new demand for wastewater disposal wells that inject waste fluids into deep geologic strata. An increasing concern in the United States is that injection of these fluids may be responsible for increasing rates of seismic activity. The number of earthquakes of magnitude 3.0 or greater in the central and eastern United States has increased dramatically since about 2009, from an average of approximately 20 per year between 1970 and 2000 to over 100 per year in the period 2010-2013. Some of these earthquakes may be felt at the surface. For example, 20 earthquakes of magnitudes 4.0 to 4.8 have struck central Oklahoma since 2009. The largest earthquake in Oklahoma history (magnitude 5.6) occurred on November 5, 2011, near Prague, causing damage to several structures nearby. Central and northern Oklahoma were seismically active regions before the recent increase in the volume of waste fluid injection through deep wells. However, the recent earthquake swarm does not seem to be due to typical, random, changes in the rate of seismicity, according to the U.S. Geological Survey."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Tiemann, Mary

  2015-01-08
• Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview [May 12, 2015]

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  "The development of unconventional oil and natural gas resources using horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing has created new demand for wastewater disposal wells that inject waste fluids into deep geologic strata. Deep-well injection has long been the environmentally preferred method for managing produced brine and other wastewater associated with oil and gas production. However, an increasing concern in the United States is that injection of these fluids may be responsible for increasing rates of seismic activity. The number of earthquakes of magnitude 3.0 or greater in the central and eastern United States has increased dramatically since about 2009 from an average of approximately 20 per year between 1970 and 2000 to over 100 per year in the period 2010-2013. Some of these earthquakes may be felt at the surface. […] The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Underground Injection Control (UIC) program under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates the subsurface injection of fluids to protect underground drinking water sources. EPA has issued regulations for six classes of injection wells, including Class II wells used for oil and gas wastewater disposal and enhanced recovery. Most oil and gas states administer the Class II program. Although the SDWA does not address seismicity, EPA rules for certain well classes require evaluation of seismic risk. Such requirements do not apply to Class II wells; however, EPA has developed a framework for evaluating seismic risk when reviewing Class II permit applications in states where EPA administers this program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Tiemann, Mary

  2015-05-12
• Ocean Acidification [July 30, 2013]

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  "On January 30, 2009, a Monaco Declaration was signed by more than 150 marine scientists from 26 countries, calling for immediate action by policymakers to reduce carbon dioxide emissions so as to avoid widespread and severe damage to marine ecosystems from ocean acidification. The Monaco Declaration is based on the Research Priorities Report developed by participants in an October 2008 international symposium on 'The Ocean in a High-CO2 World,' organized by UNESCO's [United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization] Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme. In December 2010, the United Nations Environment Programme highlighted the emerging concerns over the relationship between ocean acidification and food security. While not yet fully understood, the ecological and economic consequences of ocean acidification could be substantial. Legislative attention by Congress on ocean acidification currently is focused on authorizing, funding, and coordinating research to increase knowledge about ocean acidification and its potential effects on marine ecosystems."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Upton, Harold F. (Harold Frank); Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-30
• U.S. Tsunami Program Reauthorization in P.L. 115-25: Section-by-Section Comparison to P.L. 109-479, Title VIII [May 3, 2017]

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  "The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) National Weather Service (NWS) manages two tsunami warning centers, which monitor, detect, and issue warnings for tsunamis. The NWS operates the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) at Ford Island, HI, and the National Tsunami Warning Center (NTWC) at Palmer, AK. The tsunami warning centers monitor and evaluate data from seismic networks and determine if a tsunami is likely based on the location, magnitude, and depth of an earthquake. The centers monitor relevant water-level data, typically with tide-level gauges, and data from NOAA's network of Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART) detection buoys to confirm that a tsunami has been generated or to cancel any warnings if no tsunami is detected. In the 114th Congress, the House passed legislation amending U.S. tsunami activities (H.R. 34) and the Senate passed similar legislation (Title V of H.R. 1561). However, the 114th Congress did not enact a final version of the legislation. [...] This report compares the enacted legislation text with P.L. 109-479, Title VIII, section by section, with brief comments on selected comparisons about how changes in P.L. 115-25, Title V, affect P.L. 109-479, Title VIII, and the authorized tsunami activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2017-05-03
• Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview [September 30, 2016]

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  "Although only a small fraction of U.S. wastewater disposal wells appears to be problematic for causing damaging earthquakes, the potential for injection-related earthquakes has raised an array of issues and has affected oil and gas wastewater disposal in some areas. In response to induced seismicity concerns, both EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] and state work groups have issued recommendations for best practices to minimize and manage such risks. Several states have increased regulation and oversight of Class II disposal wells. Congress may be interested in oversight of EPA's UIC [Underground Injection Control] Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview Congressional Research Service program or in federally sponsored research on the relationship between energy development activities and induced seismicity."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Tiemann, Mary

  2016-09-30
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Issues for Congress [June 12, 2012]

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  "This report discusses how drought is defined (e.g., why drought in one region of the country is different from drought in another region), and why drought occurs in the United States. How droughts are classified, and what is meant by moderate, severe, and extreme drought classifications, are also discussed. The report briefly describes periods of drought in the country's past that equaled or exceeded drought conditions experienced during the 20th century. This is followed by a discussion of the future prospects for a climate in the West that would be drier than the average 20th-century climate. The report concludes with a primer on policy challenges for Congress, such as the existing federal/non-federal split in drought response and management and the patchwork of drought programs subject to oversight by multiple congressional committees. An exhaustive discussion of each policy challenge facing Congress is beyond the scope of this report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.; Carter, Nicole T.

  2012-06-12
• Effects of Radiation from Fukushima Daiichi on the U.S. Marine Environment [April 5, 2011]

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  "The massive Japanese earthquake and tsunami of March 11, 2011, caused extensive damage to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power installation in northeastern Japan, resulting in the release of radiation. Concerns have arisen about the potential effects of this released radiation on U.S. marine environment and resources. Both ocean currents and atmospheric winds have the potential to transport radiation over and into marine waters under U.S. jurisdiction. It is unknown whether marine organisms that take up radiation in Japanese waters may subsequently migrate to where they may be harvested by U.S. commercial fishermen. High levels of radioactive iodine-131 (with a half-life of about 8 days), cesium-137 (with a halflife of about 30 years), and cesium-134 (with a half-life of about 2 years) have been measured in seawater adjacent to the Fukushima Daiichi site. EPA rainfall monitors in California, Idaho, and Minnesota have detected trace amounts of radioactive iodine, cesium, and tellurium consistent with the Japanese nuclear incident, with current concentrations below any level of concern. It is uncertain how precipitation of radioactive elements from the atmosphere may affect radiation levels in the marine environment."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buck, Eugene H.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Upton, Harold F. (Harold Frank)

  2011-04-05
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Issues for Congress [August 15, 2012]

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  "Drought is a natural hazard with often significant societal, economic, and environmental consequences. Public policy issues related to drought range from how to identify and measure drought to how best to prepare for, mitigate, and respond to drought impacts, and who should bear associated costs. The 2012 drought is fueling congressional interest in near-term issues, such as current (and recently expired) federal programs and their funding, and long-term issues, such as improving drought forecasting and the mix of federal drought relief and mitigation actions. As of August 2012, drought has extended across more than two-thirds of the United States and has adversely affected agricultural producers and others. More than 1,400 counties in 33 states have been designated as disaster counties by the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture. Several bills are pending in Congress that would provide drought assistance or otherwise address current drought conditions. Most attention has focused on the extension of expired disaster assistance programs in separate versions of a 2012 farm bill (Senate-passed S. 3240 and House Agriculture Committee-passed H.R. [House Resolution] 6083), and a House-passed stand alone bill (H.R. 6233) to provide livestock and disaster tree assistance for FY2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.; Carter, Nicole T.

  2012-08-15
• Nuclear Power Plant Design and Seismic Safety Considerations [January 12, 2012]

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  "The earthquake and subsequent tsunami that devastated Japan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station and the earthquake that forced the North Anna, VA, nuclear power plant's temporary shutdown have focused attention on the seismic criteria applied to siting and designing commercial nuclear power plants. Some Members of Congress have questioned whether U.S nuclear plants are more vulnerable to seismic threats than previously assessed, particularly given the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC's) ongoing reassessment of seismic risks at certain plant sites. The design and operation of commercial nuclear power plants operating in the United States vary considerably because most were custom-designed and custom-built. Boiling water reactors (BWRs) directly generate steam inside the reactor vessel. Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) use heat exchangers to convert the heat generated by the reactor core into steam outside of the reactor vessel. U.S. utilities currently operate 104 nuclear power reactors at 65 sites in 31 states; 69 are PWR designs and the 35 are BWR designs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2012-01-12
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [April 19, 2010]

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  "The United States faces the possibility of large economic losses from earthquake-damaged buildings and infrastructure. California alone accounts for most of the estimated annualized earthquake losses for the nation, and with Oregon and Washington the three states account for nearly $4.1 billion (77%) of the U.S. total estimated annualized loss. A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. An ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, send notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. […]. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2009 under NEHRP has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is not clear. It is also difficult to predict precisely how NEHRP reauthorized under H.R. 3820 would achieve a major goal of the bill: to reduce the loss of life and damage to communities and infrastructure through increasing the adoption of hazard mitigation measures. A perennial issue for Congress is whether activities under NEHRP can reduce the potential for catastrophic loss in the next giant earthquake to strike the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-04-19
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [January 14, 2010]

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  "An ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, send notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. [...] This report discusses: NEHRP--the multi-agency federal program to reduce the nation's risk from earthquakes; earthquake hazards and risk in the United States; federal programs that support earthquake monitoring; the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and issue notifications and warnings; and federally supported research to improve the fundamental scientific understanding of earthquakes with a goal of reducing U.S. vulnerability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-01-14
• National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP): Issues in Brief [July 9, 2013]

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  "Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These agencies assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program encompasses how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 (P.L. [Public Law] 108-360). P.L. 108-360 authorized appropriations for NEHRP through FY2009. Total funding enacted from reauthorization through FY2009 was $613.2 million, approximately 68% of the total amount of $902.4 million authorized by P.L. 108-360. Although authorization for appropriations expired in 2009, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for NEHRP activities. NEHRP agencies spent $125.5 million for program activities in FY2012, slightly less than FY2011 spending of $126.6 million. Also, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA; P.L. 111-5) provided some additional funding for earthquake activities under NEHRP. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2013 under NEHRP has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is difficult to assess. The effectiveness of the NEHRP program is a perennial issue for Congress: it is inherently difficult to capture precisely, in terms of dollars saved or fatalities prevented, the effectiveness of mitigation measures taken before an earthquake occurs. A major earthquake in a populated urban area within the United States would cause damage, and in question is how much damage would be prevented by mitigation strategies underpinned by the NEHRP program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-09
• National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP): Issues in Brief [October 12, 2017]

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  "Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These agencies assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program encompasses how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 [...]. [...] Although authorization for appropriations expired in 2009, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for NEHRP activities. [...] The budget request for FY2018 would reduce total funding for NEHRP activities to $124.1 million, a decrease of about 8% compared to FY2017. Legislation introduced in the 115th Congress, S. 1768 (the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act of 2017), largely would leave the current four-agency NEHRP program intact, while providing some new areas of emphasis and omitting specific authorization of appropriations levels for the member agencies. The bill, introduced on September 6, 2017, would emphasize activities to promote greater resilience to earthquakes and activities that would enhance the effectiveness of an earthquake early warning system, among other changes. S. 1768 would remove statutory language referring to an original purpose of the program to seek a capability to predict earthquakes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2017-10-12
• National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP): Issues in Brief

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  "Portions of all 50 states and the District of Columbia are vulnerable to earthquake hazards, although risks vary greatly across the country and within individual states. Seismic hazards are greatest in the western United States, particularly in California, Washington, Oregon, Alaska,and Hawaii. Alaska is the most earthquake-prone state, experiencing a magnitude-7 earthquake almost every year and a magnitude-8 earthquake every 13 years, on average, since 1900. Because of its low population and low infrastructure density, Alaska has a relatively low risk for large economic losses from an earthquake. In contrast, California has more earthquake risk than any other state because of its frequent seismic activity, large population, and extensive infrastructure."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2018-09-20
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [ January 22, 2010]

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  "The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has estimated that earthquakes cost the United States over $5 billion per year. A hypothetical scenario for a magnitude 7.8 earthquake in southern California estimated a possibility of 1,800 fatalities and over $200 billion in economic losses. […]. An ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). […]. would exceed the total cumulative amounts actually appropriated between FY2005 and FY2009. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2009 under NEHRP has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is not clear. It is also difficult to predict precisely how NEHRP reauthorized under H.R. 3820 would achieve a major goal of the bill: to reduce the loss of life and damage to communities and infrastructure through increasing the adoption of hazard mitigation measures. A perennial issue for Congress is whether activities under NEHRP can reduce the potential for catastrophic loss in the next giant earthquake to strike the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-01-22
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [May 22, 2013]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. Tornadoes are the most destructive products of severe thunderstorms, and second only to flash flooding as the cause for most thunderstorm-related fatalities. Damages from violent tornadoes seem to be increasing, similar to the trend for other natural hazards--in part due to changing population, demographics, and more weather-sensitive infrastructure--and some analysts indicate that losses of $1 billion or more from single tornado events are becoming more frequent. Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the statutory authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-05-22
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [May 26, 2011]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. State and local governments are typically the first to respond to the consequences of extreme weather events, but the federal government has responsibilities for forecasting and issuing warnings to citizens and communities lying in harm's way. When severe weather catastrophes overwhelm the resources of state and local governments, the Stafford Act authorizes the President to issue major disaster or emergency declarations, resulting in the distribution of a wide range of federal aid to those affected. Also, U.S. Department of Agriculture programs, such as federal crop insurance and emergency disaster loans, can help farmers recover financially from severe weather disasters even without a presidential disaster declaration. Many observers note that although the number of lives lost each year to natural hazards in the United States has decreased, the costs of major disasters continues to rise. According to the National Science and Technology Council: 'Due to changes in population demographics and more complex weather-sensitive infrastructure, Americans today are more vulnerable than ever to severe weather events caused by tornadoes, hurricanes, severe storms, heat waves, and winter weather.' For example, the tornado outbreak of February 5-6, 2008 (dubbed the Super Tuesday Tornado Outbreak), in several southern states (including Arkansas, Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee) caused approximately $850 million in insured losses and 57 fatalities. Insurance industry analysts indicate that tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and related weather events (such as hailstorms, but not hurricanes or earthquakes) have caused nearly 57%, on average, of all insured catastrophe losses in the United States in any given year since 1953."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-05-26
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [February 2, 2010]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. [...] Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the statutory authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities. At issue for Congress is its role in mitigating damages, injuries, and fatalities from severe thunderstorms and tornadoes. The National Science and Technology Council has recommended the implementation of hazard mitigation strategies and technologies, including some--such as conducting weather-related research and development and disseminating results--that Congress has supported through annual appropriations for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Science Foundation, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and other federal agencies. Other recommended strategies include land use and zoning changes, which are typically not in the purview of Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-02-02
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [December 2, 2008]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. Tornadoes are the most destructive products of severe thunderstorms, and second only to flash flooding as the cause for most thunderstorm-related fatalities. Damages from violent tornadoes seem to be increasing, similar to the trend for other natural hazards, and some analysts indicate that losses of $1 billion or more from single tornado events are becoming more frequent. Insurance industry analysts state that tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and related weather events have caused nearly 57%, on average, of all insured losses in the United States in any given year since 1953. Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the legal authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities. At issue for Congress is its role in mitigating damages, injuries, and fatalities from severe thunderstorms and tornadoes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Reed, Aisha C.

  2008-12-02
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [September 8, 2009]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. Tornadoes are the most destructive products of severe thunderstorms, and second only to flash flooding as the cause for most thunderstorm-related fatalities. Damages from violent tornadoes seem to be increasing, similar to the trend for other natural hazards, and some analysts indicate that losses of $1 billion or more from single tornado events are becoming more frequent. Insurance industry analysts state that tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and related weather events have caused nearly 57%, on average, of all insured losses in the United States in any given year since 1953. Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the legal authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities. At issue for Congress is its role in mitigating damages, injuries, and fatalities from severe thunderstorms and tornadoes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-09-08
• Water Resource Issues in the 117th Congress [March 12, 2021]

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  From the Introduction: "This report covers broad categories of water resource topics that the 117th Congress may consider--projects and activities of USACE [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers] and Reclamation, as well as related issues such as Indian water rights settlements, international waters shared with Canada and Mexico, and water resource science at USGS [U.S. Geological Survey]. It also provides information on crosscutting topics, including support for aging and new water resource projects, protection and restoration of the environment, efforts to facilitate flood resilience and natural and nature-based infrastructure, and groundwater recharge."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stern, Charles V.; Carter, Nicole T.; Sheikh, Pervaze A. . . .

  2021-03-12
• Earthquake Risk and U.S. Highway Infrastructure: Frequently Asked Questions [June 5, 2013]

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  "The 9.0 magnitude earthquake that struck off the coast of Sendai, Japan, on March 11, 2011, renewed concerns about the seismic risk to America's infrastructure, including its highways. Concerns about the U.S. highway system's seismic risk stem from interest in protecting public safety, facilitating response and recovery efforts, and minimizing economic loss and social disruption. Seismic resilience of the U.S. highway system has improved in recent decades as investments have been made to build new, more resilient infrastructure and to retrofit existing structures. However, not all existing highway infrastructure has been retrofitted, and no infrastructure can be constructed in a cost-effective manner to be immune from the most intense earthquakes, so some seismic risk to the U.S. highway system remains. Although earthquake hazards in the United States generally are well documented, little national or federal data exist about the seismic risk to U.S. highway infrastructure. Instead, seismic highway risks typically are assessed and addressed by state and local entities which are generally responsible for building and maintaining that infrastructure. The federal government supports these nonfederal efforts by providing data on the seismic hazard for different locations, assisting in the development of construction standards and guidelines, and undertaking research, training, and the development of tools to assist in risk reduction. In limited circumstances, the federal government invests directly in improving resiliency of specific highway structures. This report addresses frequently asked questions about the risk from earthquakes to highway systems, including bridges, tunnels, pavements, and other highway components. Particular attention is given to highway bridges, which often are the most vulnerable highway structures. The report also discusses federal and nonfederal actions to reduce seismic risk to the U.S. highway system. Japan is generally regarded as the country with the most earthquake-resilient infrastructure. Research into the performance of Japan's highway structures and systems during and after the massive Sendai earthquake and resulting tsunami is ongoing. Japanese and U.S. earthquake science and engineering researchers have well-established collaborations aimed at gathering empirical data and drawing lessons from significant events. It is too soon to know how the events in Japan will affect understanding of the seismic risk of U.S. highway infrastructure, and whether changes in U.S. seismic highway design standards and guidance will result."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Carter, Nicole T.; Mallett, William

  2013-06-05
• Earthquake Risk and U.S. Highway Infrastructure: Frequently Asked Questions [May 19, 2016]

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  "Earthquakes and related events, such as soil liquefaction, landslides, tsunamis, flooding, and fires, pose risks to highway infrastructure. Concerns about the U.S. highway system's seismic vulnerability stem from interest in protecting public safety, facilitating response and recovery efforts, and minimizing economic loss and social disruption. This report addresses a number of frequently asked questions about earthquake risk and highway system components, especially bridges."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mallett, William; Carter, Nicole T.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2016-05-19
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [February 8, 2011]

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  "A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. One study of the damage caused by a hypothetical magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the San Andreas Fault in southern California projected as many as 1,800 fatalities and more than $200 billion in economic losses. An issue for the 112th Congress is whether existing federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). [...] Legislation was introduced during the 111th Congress (H.R. 3820) that would have made changes to the program and would have authorized appropriations totaling $906 million over five years for NEHRP. Ninety percent of the funding would have been designated for the USGS and NSF, and the remainder for FEMA and NIST. The bill passed the House but not the Senate. Similar legislation will likely be introduced in the 112th Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-02-08
• Unconventional Gas Shales: Development, Technology, and Policy Issues [October 30, 2009]

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  "In the past, the oil and gas industry considered gas locked in tight, impermeable shale uneconomical to produce. However, advances in directional well drilling and reservoir stimulation have dramatically increased gas production from unconventional shales. The United States Geological Survey estimates that 200 trillion cubic feet of natural gas may be technically recoverable from these shales. Recent high natural gas prices have also stimulated interest in developing gas shales. Although natural gas prices fell dramatically in 2009, there is an expectation that the demand for natural gas will increase. Developing these shales comes with some controversy, though. The hydraulic fracturing treatments used to stimulate gas production from shale have stirred environmental concerns over excessive water consumption, drinking water well contamination, and surface water contamination from both drilling activities and fracturing fluid disposal. The saline 'flowback' water pumped back to the surface after the fracturing process poses a significant environmental management challenge in the Marcellus region. The flowback's high content of total dissolved solids (TDS) and other contaminants must be disposed of or adequately treated before discharged to surface waters. The federal Clean Water Act and state laws regulate the discharge of this flowback water and other drilling wastewater to surface waters, while the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates deep well injection of such wastewater. Hydraulically fractured wells are also subject to various state regulations. Historically, the EPA has not regulated hydraulic fracturing, and the 2005 Energy Policy Act exempted hydraulic fracturing from SDWA regulation. Recently introduced bills would make hydraulic fracturing subject to regulation under SDWA, while another bill would affirm the current regulatory exemption."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphries, Marc; Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-10-30
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) [June 19, 2009]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--has attracted interest as a measure for mitigating global climate change because large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from fossil fuel use in the United States are potentially available to be captured and stored underground or prevented from reaching the atmosphere. Large, industrial sources of CO2, such as electricity-generating plants, are likely initial candidates for CCS because they are predominantly stationary, single-point sources. Electricity generation contributes over 40% of U.S. CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. [...]. The increase in funding for CCS provided for in ARRA [American Recovery and Reinvestment Act] and by other economic incentives may lead to less expensive and more effective technologies for capturing large quantities of CO2. Without a carbon price or a regulatory requirement to cap CO2 emissions, however, it will be difficult to predict or evaluate how the technology would be deployed throughout the U.S. energy sector. By comparison, transporting, injecting, and storing CO2 underground may be less daunting. A large pipeline infrastructure for transporting CO2 could be very costly, however, and considerable uncertainty remains over how large quantities of injected CO2 would be permanently stored underground. To help resolve these uncertainties, DOE has initiated large-scale CO2 injection tests in a variety of geologic reservoirs that are to take place over the next several years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-06-19
• Issues and Challenges for Federal Geospatial Information [May 18, 2011]

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  "Congress has recognized the challenge of coordinating and sharing geospatial data from the local, county, and state level to the national level, and vice versa. The cost to the federal government of gathering and coordinating geospatial information has also been an ongoing concern. As much as 80% of government information has a geospatial component, according to various sources. The federal government's role has changed from being a primary provider of authoritative geospatial information to coordinating and managing geospatial data and facilitating partnerships. Congress explored issues of cost, duplication of effort, and coordination of geospatial information in hearings during the 108th Congress. However, challenges to coordinating how geospatial data are acquired and used--collecting duplicative data sets, for example--at the local, state, and federal levels, in collaboration with the private sector, are not yet resolved."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-05-18
• Geospatial Information and Geographic Information Systems (GIS): An Overview for Congress

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  "Geospatial information is data referenced to a place--a set of geographic coordinates--which can often be gathered, manipulated, and displayed in real time. A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer data system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information. The federal government and policy makers increasingly use geospatial information and tools like GIS for producing floodplain maps, conducting the census, mapping foreclosures, congressional redistricting, and responding to natural hazards such as wildfires, earthquakes, and tsunamis. For policy makers, this type of analysis can greatly assist in clarifying complex problems that may involve local, state, and federal government, and affect businesses, residential areas, and federal installations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-05-18
• Issues and Challenges for Federal Geospatial Information [April 27, 2012]

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  "Congress has recognized the challenge of coordinating and sharing geospatial data from the local, county, and state level to the national level, and vice versa. The cost to the federal government of gathering and coordinating geospatial information has also been an ongoing concern. As much as 80% of government information has a geospatial component, according to various sources. The federal government's role has changed from being a primary provider of authoritative geospatial information to coordinating and managing geospatial data and facilitating partnerships. Congress explored issues of cost, duplication of effort, and coordination of geospatial information in hearings during the 108th Congress. However, challenges to coordinating how geospatial data are acquired and used-collecting duplicative data sets, for example-at the local, state, and federal levels, in collaboration with the private sector, are not yet resolved. Two bills introduced in the 112th Congress, H.R. 1620 and H.R. 4322, would address aspects of duplication and coordination of geospatial information. [...] This report discusses issues that may be of interest to Congress-managing, sharing, and coordinating geospatial information-and includes examples of legislation. This report also summarizes a diverse set of recommendations and proposals from different non-governmental organizations for how to improve the coordination and management of geospatial information at the federal and state levels."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2012-04-27