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• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [August, 24, 2011]

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  "The United States faces the possibility of large economic losses from earthquake-damaged buildings and infrastructure. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has estimated that earthquakes cost the United States, on average, over $5 billion per year. California, Oregon, and Washington account for nearly $4.1 billion (77%) of the U.S. total estimated average annualized loss. California alone accounts for most of the estimated annualized earthquake losses for the nation. A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. One study of the damage caused by a hypothetical magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the San Andreas Fault in southern California projected as many as 1,800 fatalities and more than $200 billion in economic losses. An issue for the 112th Congress is whether existing federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program might revisit how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 (P.L. 108-360)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-08-24
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [May 26, 2011]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. State and local governments are typically the first to respond to the consequences of extreme weather events, but the federal government has responsibilities for forecasting and issuing warnings to citizens and communities lying in harm's way. When severe weather catastrophes overwhelm the resources of state and local governments, the Stafford Act authorizes the President to issue major disaster or emergency declarations, resulting in the distribution of a wide range of federal aid to those affected. Also, U.S. Department of Agriculture programs, such as federal crop insurance and emergency disaster loans, can help farmers recover financially from severe weather disasters even without a presidential disaster declaration. Many observers note that although the number of lives lost each year to natural hazards in the United States has decreased, the costs of major disasters continues to rise. According to the National Science and Technology Council: 'Due to changes in population demographics and more complex weather-sensitive infrastructure, Americans today are more vulnerable than ever to severe weather events caused by tornadoes, hurricanes, severe storms, heat waves, and winter weather.' For example, the tornado outbreak of February 5-6, 2008 (dubbed the Super Tuesday Tornado Outbreak), in several southern states (including Arkansas, Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee) caused approximately $850 million in insured losses and 57 fatalities. Insurance industry analysts indicate that tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and related weather events (such as hailstorms, but not hurricanes or earthquakes) have caused nearly 57%, on average, of all insured catastrophe losses in the United States in any given year since 1953."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-05-26
• Issues and Challenges for Federal Geospatial Information [May 18, 2011]

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  "Congress has recognized the challenge of coordinating and sharing geospatial data from the local, county, and state level to the national level, and vice versa. The cost to the federal government of gathering and coordinating geospatial information has also been an ongoing concern. As much as 80% of government information has a geospatial component, according to various sources. The federal government's role has changed from being a primary provider of authoritative geospatial information to coordinating and managing geospatial data and facilitating partnerships. Congress explored issues of cost, duplication of effort, and coordination of geospatial information in hearings during the 108th Congress. However, challenges to coordinating how geospatial data are acquired and used--collecting duplicative data sets, for example--at the local, state, and federal levels, in collaboration with the private sector, are not yet resolved."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-05-18
• Geospatial Information and Geographic Information Systems (GIS): An Overview for Congress

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  "Geospatial information is data referenced to a place--a set of geographic coordinates--which can often be gathered, manipulated, and displayed in real time. A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer data system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information. The federal government and policy makers increasingly use geospatial information and tools like GIS for producing floodplain maps, conducting the census, mapping foreclosures, congressional redistricting, and responding to natural hazards such as wildfires, earthquakes, and tsunamis. For policy makers, this type of analysis can greatly assist in clarifying complex problems that may involve local, state, and federal government, and affect businesses, residential areas, and federal installations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-05-18
• Clean Energy Standard: Potential Qualifying Energy Sources [May 3, 2011]

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  "A clean energy standard (CES) has been identified as one possible legislative option to encourage a more diverse domestic electricity portfolio. A CES could require certain electricity providers to obtain a portion of their electricity from qualifying clean energy sources. A CES is broader than a renewable energy standard (RES), including 'clean' energy sources along with renewable energy sources. The RES has been a topic of legislative attention since at least the 105th Congress. Some assert that a CES could lead to economic growth, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and secure U.S. leadership in clean energy technology. Others argue that a CES could lead to higher electricity prices, necessitate additional financial investment in grid infrastructure, and - in some cases - depend on energy technologies that are not yet established for widespread commercial scale use. [...] Many questions will need to be answered if a CES is established. How much clean electricity can be generated from each qualifying energy source, given the proposed CES time frame? Should a carbon accounting parameter be assigned to each source? Will a time come when some resources (e.g., wind, solar) used to generate clean electricity cease to be considered a 'free' resource? Should energy efficiency be included in a CES, and if so, how should it be included? How would a CES interact with state renewable electricity requirements? Who would assume the costs of new transmission capacity?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Bracmort, Kelsi; Brown, Phillip (Specialist in Energy Policy)

  2011-05-03
• Effects of Radiation from Fukushima Daiichi on the U.S. Marine Environment [April 5, 2011]

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  "The massive Japanese earthquake and tsunami of March 11, 2011, caused extensive damage to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power installation in northeastern Japan, resulting in the release of radiation. Concerns have arisen about the potential effects of this released radiation on U.S. marine environment and resources. Both ocean currents and atmospheric winds have the potential to transport radiation over and into marine waters under U.S. jurisdiction. It is unknown whether marine organisms that take up radiation in Japanese waters may subsequently migrate to where they may be harvested by U.S. commercial fishermen. High levels of radioactive iodine-131 (with a half-life of about 8 days), cesium-137 (with a halflife of about 30 years), and cesium-134 (with a half-life of about 2 years) have been measured in seawater adjacent to the Fukushima Daiichi site. EPA rainfall monitors in California, Idaho, and Minnesota have detected trace amounts of radioactive iodine, cesium, and tellurium consistent with the Japanese nuclear incident, with current concentrations below any level of concern. It is uncertain how precipitation of radioactive elements from the atmosphere may affect radiation levels in the marine environment."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buck, Eugene H.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Upton, Harold F. (Harold Frank)

  2011-04-05
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [March 18, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "The United States faces the possibility of large economic losses from earthquake-damaged buildings and infrastructure. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has estimated that earthquakes cost the United States, on average, over $5 billion per year. California, Oregon, and Washington account for nearly $4.1 billion (77%) of the U.S. total estimated average annualized loss. California alone accounts for most of the estimated annualized earthquake losses for the nation. A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. One study of the damage caused by a hypothetical magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the San Andreas Fault in southern California projected as many as 1,800 fatalities and more than $200 billion in economic losses. An issue for the 112th Congress is whether existing federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. […] Legislation was introduced during the 111th Congress (H.R. 3820) that would have made changes to the program and would have authorized appropriations totaling $906 million over five years for NEHRP. Ninety percent of the funding would have been designated for the USGS [United State Geological Survey] and NSF [National Science Foundation], and the remainder for FEMA [Federal Emergency Management Agency] and NIST [National Institute of Standards and Technology]. The bill passed the House but not the Senate. Similar legislation will likely be introduced in the 112th Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-03-18
• U.S. Tsunami Programs: A Brief Overview [March 18 2011]

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  "A 9.0 magnitude earthquake struck off Japan's northeast coast near Honshu in the afternoon on Friday, March 11, 2011 (12:46 a.m. eastern time in the United States). The earthquake triggered a tsunami that has caused widespread devastation to parts of the coastal regions in Japan closest to the earthquake. The tsunami traveled across the Pacific Ocean, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) tsunami warning centers in Hawaii and Alaska issued tsunami warnings for coastal areas of Hawaii, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, American Samoa, Alaska, and California. Although the tsunami caused widespread damage along the northeast coast of Japan, tsunami warnings issued from the tsunami warning centers gave the above U.S. Pacific territories, Hawaii, and the U.S. West Coast adequate warning to prepare for incoming waves. NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) manages the two tsunami warning centers that monitor, detect, and issue warnings for tsunamis generated in the Pacific Ocean. [...] Funding for the NOAA tsunami program supports three main categories of activities: (1) warning, such as the activities of the tsunami warning centers and DART [Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis] network; (2) mitigation, such as the activities of NTHMP [National Tsunami Hazards Mitigation Program]; and (3) research, including activities conducted by the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and the National Buoy Data Center. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) noted that total funding for all these activities ranged from $5 million to $10 million annually between FY1997 and FY2004, but increased after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami from approximately $27 million in FY2005 to $42 million in FY2009. Funding in FY2010 was $41 million. Currently, 7 of the 39 DART buoys are not operational. Of the 7 buoys that are not working, 5 are deployed in the Pacific Ocean. If more DART buoys fail, and regional forecasting capabilities are impaired, then the NOAA Administrator must notify Congress within 30 days. According to NOAA, the current continuing resolution (P.L. 112-4) does not allow the NWS to allocate FY2011 funding to purchase ship time required to repair the 7 DART buoys that are not working."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-03-18
• U.S. Tsunami Programs: A Brief Overview [March 14, 2011]

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  "An 8.9 magnitude massive earthquake struck off Japan's northeast coast near Honshu in the afternoon on Friday, March 11, 2011 (12:46 a.m. eastern time in the United States). The earthquake triggered a tsunami that has caused widespread devastation to parts of the coastal regions in Japan closest to the earthquake. The tsunami traveled across the Pacific Ocean, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) tsunami warning centers in Hawaii and Alaska issued tsunami warnings for coastal areas of Hawaii, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, American Samoa, Alaska, and California. The first tsunami waves reached Hawaii in the early morning of March 11, and reached the west coast of the United States later in the morning (Pacific time). Although the tsunami caused widespread damage along the northeast coast of Japan, tsunami warnings issued from the tsunami warning centers gave the above U.S. Pacific territories, Hawaii, and the U.S. West Coast ample warning to prepare for incoming waves. In addition, the long distance traveled across the Pacific from the earthquake epicenter attenuated the energy associated with the tsunami thousands of miles from its source. In contrast, the city of Sendai, Japan, is just 80 miles west of the epicenter. Figure 1 shows results from a model depicting the tsunami wave propagation across the Pacific Ocean."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-03-14
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [February 8, 2011]

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  "A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. One study of the damage caused by a hypothetical magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the San Andreas Fault in southern California projected as many as 1,800 fatalities and more than $200 billion in economic losses. An issue for the 112th Congress is whether existing federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). [...] Legislation was introduced during the 111th Congress (H.R. 3820) that would have made changes to the program and would have authorized appropriations totaling $906 million over five years for NEHRP. Ninety percent of the funding would have been designated for the USGS and NSF, and the remainder for FEMA and NIST. The bill passed the House but not the Senate. Similar legislation will likely be introduced in the 112th Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-02-08
• Methane Capture: Options for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction [January 7, 2011]

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  "Research on climate change has identified a wide array of sources that emit greenhouse gases (GHGs). Among the six gases that have generally been the primary focus of concern, methane is the second-most abundant, accounting for approximately 8% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2008. Methane is emitted from a number of sources. The most significant are agriculture (both animal digestive systems and manure management); landfills; oil and gas production, refining, and distribution; and coal mining. […] This report discusses alternatives for addressing methane capture, sources of methane, opportunities and challenges for methane capture, and current federal programs that support methane recovery."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bracmort, Kelsi; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; McCarthy, James E. . . .

  2011-01-07
• Gas Hydrates: Resource and Hazard [May 25, 2010]

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  From the Summary: "Solid gas hydrates are a potentially huge resource of natural gas for the United States. The U.S. Geological Survey estimated that there are about 85 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of technically recoverable gas hydrates in northern Alaska. The Minerals Management Service estimated a mean value of 21,000 TCF of in-place gas hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico. By comparison, total U.S. natural gas consumption is about 23 TCF annually. The in-place estimate disregards technical or economical recoverability, and likely overestimates the amount of commercially viable gas hydrates. Even if a fraction of the U.S. gas hydrates can be economically produced, however, it could add substantially to the 1,300 TCF of technically recoverable U.S. conventional natural gas reserves. To date, however, gas hydrates have no confirmed commercial production. Gas hydrates are both a potential resource and a risk, representing a significant hazard to conventional oil and gas drilling and production operations. If the solid gas hydrates dissociate suddenly and release expanded gas during offshore drilling, they could disrupt the marine sediments and compromise pipelines and production equipment on the seafloor. The tendency of gas hydrates to dissociate and release methane, which can be a hazard, is the same characteristic that research and development efforts strive to enhance so that methane can be produced and recovered in commercial quantities. Gas hydrates have hindered attempts to plug the Deepwater Horizon oil well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, and may have had some role in contributing to anomalous gas pressure in the wellbore that caused the blowout itself."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-05-25
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [April 19, 2010]

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  "The United States faces the possibility of large economic losses from earthquake-damaged buildings and infrastructure. California alone accounts for most of the estimated annualized earthquake losses for the nation, and with Oregon and Washington the three states account for nearly $4.1 billion (77%) of the U.S. total estimated annualized loss. A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. An ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, send notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. […]. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2009 under NEHRP has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is not clear. It is also difficult to predict precisely how NEHRP reauthorized under H.R. 3820 would achieve a major goal of the bill: to reduce the loss of life and damage to communities and infrastructure through increasing the adoption of hazard mitigation measures. A perennial issue for Congress is whether activities under NEHRP can reduce the potential for catastrophic loss in the next giant earthquake to strike the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-04-19
• Capturing CO2 from Coal-Fired Power Plants: Challenges for a Comprehensive Strategy [April 15, 2010]

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  "Any comprehensive approach to substantially reduce greenhouse gases must address the world's dependency on coal for one-quarter of its energy demand, including almost half of its electricity demand. To maintain coal in the world's energy mix in a carbon-constrained future would require development of a technology to capture and stores its carbon dioxide emissions. This situation suggests to some that any greenhouse gas reduction program be delayed until such carbon capture technology has been demonstrated. however, technological innovation and the demands of a carbon control regime are interlined; a technology policy is no substitute for environmental policy and should be developed in concert with it."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry, 1954-; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-04-15
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [February 2, 2010]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. [...] Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the statutory authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities. At issue for Congress is its role in mitigating damages, injuries, and fatalities from severe thunderstorms and tornadoes. The National Science and Technology Council has recommended the implementation of hazard mitigation strategies and technologies, including some--such as conducting weather-related research and development and disseminating results--that Congress has supported through annual appropriations for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Science Foundation, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and other federal agencies. Other recommended strategies include land use and zoning changes, which are typically not in the purview of Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-02-02
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [ January 22, 2010]

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  "The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has estimated that earthquakes cost the United States over $5 billion per year. A hypothetical scenario for a magnitude 7.8 earthquake in southern California estimated a possibility of 1,800 fatalities and over $200 billion in economic losses. […]. An ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). […]. would exceed the total cumulative amounts actually appropriated between FY2005 and FY2009. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2009 under NEHRP has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is not clear. It is also difficult to predict precisely how NEHRP reauthorized under H.R. 3820 would achieve a major goal of the bill: to reduce the loss of life and damage to communities and infrastructure through increasing the adoption of hazard mitigation measures. A perennial issue for Congress is whether activities under NEHRP can reduce the potential for catastrophic loss in the next giant earthquake to strike the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-01-22
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [January 14, 2010]

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  "An ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, send notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. [...] This report discusses: NEHRP--the multi-agency federal program to reduce the nation's risk from earthquakes; earthquake hazards and risk in the United States; federal programs that support earthquake monitoring; the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and issue notifications and warnings; and federally supported research to improve the fundamental scientific understanding of earthquakes with a goal of reducing U.S. vulnerability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2010-01-14
• Unconventional Gas Shales: Development, Technology, and Policy Issues [October 30, 2009]

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  "In the past, the oil and gas industry considered gas locked in tight, impermeable shale uneconomical to produce. However, advances in directional well drilling and reservoir stimulation have dramatically increased gas production from unconventional shales. The United States Geological Survey estimates that 200 trillion cubic feet of natural gas may be technically recoverable from these shales. Recent high natural gas prices have also stimulated interest in developing gas shales. Although natural gas prices fell dramatically in 2009, there is an expectation that the demand for natural gas will increase. Developing these shales comes with some controversy, though. The hydraulic fracturing treatments used to stimulate gas production from shale have stirred environmental concerns over excessive water consumption, drinking water well contamination, and surface water contamination from both drilling activities and fracturing fluid disposal. The saline 'flowback' water pumped back to the surface after the fracturing process poses a significant environmental management challenge in the Marcellus region. The flowback's high content of total dissolved solids (TDS) and other contaminants must be disposed of or adequately treated before discharged to surface waters. The federal Clean Water Act and state laws regulate the discharge of this flowback water and other drilling wastewater to surface waters, while the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates deep well injection of such wastewater. Hydraulically fractured wells are also subject to various state regulations. Historically, the EPA has not regulated hydraulic fracturing, and the 2005 Energy Policy Act exempted hydraulic fracturing from SDWA regulation. Recently introduced bills would make hydraulic fracturing subject to regulation under SDWA, while another bill would affirm the current regulatory exemption."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphries, Marc; Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-10-30
• Methane Capture: Options for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction [September 17, 2009]

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  From the Summary: "Research on climate change has identified a wide array of sources that emit greenhouse gases (GHGs). Among the six gases that have generally been the primary focus of concern, methane is the second-most abundant, accounting for approximately 8% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2007. Methane is emitted from a number of sources. The most significant are agriculture (both animal digestive systems and manure management); landfills; oil and gas production, refining, and distribution; and coal mining. As Congress considers legislation to address climate change by capping or reducing GHG emissions, methane capture projects offer an array of possible reduction opportunities, many of which utilize proven technologies. Methane capture projects (e.g., landfill gas projects, anaerobic digestion systems) restrict the release of methane into the atmosphere. The methane captured can be used for energy or flared. Methane capture challenges differ depending on the source. Most methane capture technologies face obstacles to implementation, including marginal economics in many cases, restricted pipeline access, and various legal issues.[...]This report discusses legislative alternatives for addressing methane capture, sources of methane, opportunities and challenges for methane capture, and current federal programs that support methane recovery."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .

  2009-09-17
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [September 8, 2009]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. Tornadoes are the most destructive products of severe thunderstorms, and second only to flash flooding as the cause for most thunderstorm-related fatalities. Damages from violent tornadoes seem to be increasing, similar to the trend for other natural hazards, and some analysts indicate that losses of $1 billion or more from single tornado events are becoming more frequent. Insurance industry analysts state that tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and related weather events have caused nearly 57%, on average, of all insured losses in the United States in any given year since 1953. Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the legal authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities. At issue for Congress is its role in mitigating damages, injuries, and fatalities from severe thunderstorms and tornadoes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-09-08
• Issues Regarding a National Land Parcel Database [July 22, 2009]

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  "This report provides a summary of some of the issues regarding the creation of a national land parcel database, or cadastre. The report identifies some of the perceived needs for a national cadastre, legislative and administrative options that could lead to a national land parcel database, and some of the challenges and concerns. The report also summarizes and briefly discusses recommendations in a 2007 National Research Council (NRC) report that concluded "... a national approach is necessary to provide a rational and accountable system of property records." The NRC report described why a national approach is needed, identified challenges to creating a national cadastre, and offered specific recommendations for achieving its vision: a distributed system of land parcel data housed with the appropriate data stewards but accessible through a web-based interface."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-07-22
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) [June 19, 2009]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--has attracted interest as a measure for mitigating global climate change because large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from fossil fuel use in the United States are potentially available to be captured and stored underground or prevented from reaching the atmosphere. Large, industrial sources of CO2, such as electricity-generating plants, are likely initial candidates for CCS because they are predominantly stationary, single-point sources. Electricity generation contributes over 40% of U.S. CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. [...]. The increase in funding for CCS provided for in ARRA [American Recovery and Reinvestment Act] and by other economic incentives may lead to less expensive and more effective technologies for capturing large quantities of CO2. Without a carbon price or a regulatory requirement to cap CO2 emissions, however, it will be difficult to predict or evaluate how the technology would be deployed throughout the U.S. energy sector. By comparison, transporting, injecting, and storing CO2 underground may be less daunting. A large pipeline infrastructure for transporting CO2 could be very costly, however, and considerable uncertainty remains over how large quantities of injected CO2 would be permanently stored underground. To help resolve these uncertainties, DOE has initiated large-scale CO2 injection tests in a variety of geologic reservoirs that are to take place over the next several years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-06-19
• Geospatial Information and Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Current Issues and Future Challenges [June 8, 2009]

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  "The federal government has recognized the need to organize and coordinate the collection and management of geospatial data since at least 1990, when the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) revised Circular A-16 to establish the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) and to promote the coordinated use, sharing, and dissemination of geospatial data nationwide. OMB Circular A-16 also called for development of a national digital spatial information resource to enable the sharing and transfer of spatial data between users and producers, linked by criteria and standards. Executive Order 12906, issued in 1994, strengthened and enhanced Circular A-16, and specified that FGDC shall coordinate development of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-06-08
• Energy Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5) [March 12, 2009]

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  "The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA, P.L. 111-5) emphasizes jobs, economic recovery, and assistance to those most impacted by the recession. It also stresses investments in technology, transportation, environmental protection, and other infrastructure and proposes strategies to stabilize state and local government budgets. Energy provisions are a featured part of ARRA. More than $45 billion is provided in appropriations for energy programs, mainly for energy efficiency and renewable energy. Most funding must be obligated by the end of FY2010. ARRA also provides more than $21 billion in energy tax incentives, primarily for energy efficiency and renewable energy. More than $11 billion is provided in grants for state and local governments through three Department of Energy programs. They are the Weatherization Assistance Program, which provides energy efficiency services to low-income households; the State Energy Program, which provides states with discretionary funding that can be used for various energy efficiency and renewable energy purposes; and the new Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant Program, which aims to help reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. The law conditions eligibility for most of the State Energy Program funding on enactment of new building codes and adoption of electric utility rate 'decoupling' to encourage energy efficiency. For the Department of Education, about $8.8 billion is provided for 'Other Government Services,' which may include renovations of schools and college facilities that meet green building criteria. The Department of Housing and Urban Development ($2 billion), and the Environmental Protection Agency ($1 billion) receive multi-purpose funds that can be used for energy efficiency measures in public housing and state and tribal facilities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sissine, Fred J.; Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .

  2009-03-12
• Energy Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5) [March 3, 2009]

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  "The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA, P.L. 111-5) emphasizes jobs, economic recovery, and assistance to those most impacted by the recession. It also stresses investments in technology, transportation, environmental protection, and other infrastructure and proposes strategies to stabilize state and local government budgets. Energy provisions are a featured part of ARRA. More than $42 billion is provided in appropriations for energy programs, mainly for energy efficiency and renewable energy. Most funding must be obligated by the end of FY2010. ARRA also provides more than $21 billion in energy tax incentives, primarily for energy efficiency and renewable energy. More than $11 billion is provided in grants for state and local governments through three Department of Energy programs. They are the Weatherization Assistance Program, which provides energy efficiency services to low-income households; the State Energy Program, which provides states with discretionary funding that can be used for various energy efficiency and renewable energy purposes; and the new Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant Program, which aims to help reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. The law conditions eligibility for most of the State Energy Program funding on enactment of new building codes and adoption of electric utility rate 'decoupling' to encourage energy efficiency. For the Department of Education, about $8.8 billion is provided for 'Other Government Services,' which may include renovations of schools and college facilities that meet green building criteria. The Department of Housing and Urban Development ($2 billion),and the Environmental Protection Agency ($1 billion) receive multi-purpose funds that can be used for energy efficiency measures in public housing and state and tribal facilities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sissine, Fred J.; Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .

  2009-03-03
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Issues for Congress [March 2, 2009]

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  "This report focuses on the physical causes of drought, its history in the United States, and what may be expected in the near future. Although currently drought can be predicted for a particular region for at best a few months in advance, past history suggests that severe and extended droughts are inevitable and part of natural climate cycles, particularly in the West. […]. The prospect of extended droughts and more arid baseline conditions in parts of the United States could suggest new challenges to federal water projects, the construction of which was based largely on 20th century climate conditions. In responding to competing demands for water, such as deliveries to serve agricultural demands, municipal needs, endangered species, and others, federal water delivery systems may have to be re-tuned to match a drier average climate in the West. As a further complication, federal, state, and local authorities make water resource decisions within the context of multiple and often conflicting laws and objectives, competing legal decisions, and entrenched institutional mechanisms. The evolving nature of drought, split federal and non-federal responsibilities, and a patchwork of federal programs and congressional committee jurisdictions make development of a comprehensive national drought policy difficult. Although Congress has considered some of the recommendations issued by the National Drought Policy Commission in 2000, comprehensive drought legislation has not been enacted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cody, Betsy A.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-03-02
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [December 2, 2008]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. Tornadoes are the most destructive products of severe thunderstorms, and second only to flash flooding as the cause for most thunderstorm-related fatalities. Damages from violent tornadoes seem to be increasing, similar to the trend for other natural hazards, and some analysts indicate that losses of $1 billion or more from single tornado events are becoming more frequent. Insurance industry analysts state that tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and related weather events have caused nearly 57%, on average, of all insured losses in the United States in any given year since 1953. Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the legal authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities. At issue for Congress is its role in mitigating damages, injuries, and fatalities from severe thunderstorms and tornadoes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Reed, Aisha C.

  2008-12-02
• Earthquakes: Risk, Monitoring, Notification, and Research [Updated June 19, 2008]

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  This Congressional Research Service (CRS) report discusses the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) what it covers and needed improvements to the existing program infrastructure to better proactively address earthquake related hazards. "Given the potentially huge costs associated with a severe earthquake, an ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, send notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congress established NEHRP in 1977, and its early focus was on research that would lead to an improved understanding of why earthquakes occur and to an ability to predict their occurrence precisely. Understanding has improved about why and where earthquakes occur; however, reliably predicting the precise date and time an earthquake will occur is not yet possible. Congress most recently reauthorized NEHRP in 2004 (P.L. 108-360) and authorized appropriations through FY2009. The 2004 reauthorization designated NIST as the lead agency to create better synergy among the agencies and improve the program. Congress may wish to determine whether the reorganized structure has yielded expected benefits for the program. Appropriations for NEHRP have not met levels authorized for the past four years, falling short by an average of 31% for FY2005 through FY2008. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2008 has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is not clear."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2008-06-19
• Global Climate Change and Wildlife [Updated May 15, 2008]

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  From the Summary: "Recently projected climate changes could have widespread effects on wildlife species. These effects might be positive or negative, depending on the species. Some effects might include extinction, range shifts, mismatches in phenology (timing of pollination, flowering, etc.), and population changes. Effects of climate change on wildlife have been reported for some species and populations in localized areas. Many scientists contend that climate change acts in concert with other variables (such as habitat) to affect species. If the effects of climate change are widespread, there is uncertainty on how wildlife will adapt. Some suggest that evolution and migration will enable species to adapt, whereas others contend that adaptation will be minimal because of limited habitat, and changes in climate that may occur more rapidly than adaptation can respond."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Leggett, Jane A. . . .

  2008-05-15
• Carbon Cycle: Implications for Climate Change and Congress [March 13, 2008]

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  "Huge quantities of carbon are actively exchanged between the atmosphere and other storage pools, including the oceans, vegetation, and soils on the land surface. The exchange, or flux, of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface is called the global carbon cycle. Comparatively, human activities contribute a relatively small amount of carbon, primarily as carbon dioxide (CO2), to the global carbon cycle. Despite the addition of a relatively small amount of carbon to the atmosphere, compared to natural fluxes from the oceans and land surface, the human perturbation to the carbon cycle is increasingly recognized as a main factor driving climate change over the past 50 years. […] Congress is considering legislative strategies to reduce U.S. emissions of CO2 and/or increase the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere. Congress may also opt to consider how land management practices, such as afforestation, conservation tillage, and other techniques, might increase the net flux of carbon from the atmosphere to the land surface. How the ocean sink could be managed to store more carbon is unclear. Iron fertilization and deep ocean injection of CO2 are in an experimental stage, and their promise for long-term enhancement of carbon uptake by the oceans is not well understood. Congress may consider incorporating what is known about the carbon cycle into its legislative strategies, and may also evaluate whether the global carbon cycle is sufficiently well understood so that the consequences of longterm policies aimed at mitigating global climate change are fully appreciated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2008-03-13