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• Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview [January 8, 2015]

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  "The development of unconventional oil and natural gas resources using horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking) has created new demand for wastewater disposal wells that inject waste fluids into deep geologic strata. An increasing concern in the United States is that injection of these fluids may be responsible for increasing rates of seismic activity. The number of earthquakes of magnitude 3.0 or greater in the central and eastern United States has increased dramatically since about 2009, from an average of approximately 20 per year between 1970 and 2000 to over 100 per year in the period 2010-2013. Some of these earthquakes may be felt at the surface. For example, 20 earthquakes of magnitudes 4.0 to 4.8 have struck central Oklahoma since 2009. The largest earthquake in Oklahoma history (magnitude 5.6) occurred on November 5, 2011, near Prague, causing damage to several structures nearby. Central and northern Oklahoma were seismically active regions before the recent increase in the volume of waste fluid injection through deep wells. However, the recent earthquake swarm does not seem to be due to typical, random, changes in the rate of seismicity, according to the U.S. Geological Survey."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Tiemann, Mary

  2015-01-08
• Human-Induced Earthquakes from Deep-Well Injection: A Brief Overview [December 22, 2014]

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  "Despite increasing evidence linking some deep-well disposal activities with human-induced earthquakes, only a small fraction of the more than 30,000 U.S. wastewater disposal wells appears to be associated with damaging earthquakes. The potential for damaging earthquakes caused by hydraulic fracturing itself, as opposed to deepwell injection of wastewater from oil and gas activities, appears to be much smaller. Hydraulic fracturing intentionally creates fractures in rocks, and induces microseismicity, mostly of less than magnitude 1.0, too small to feel or cause damage. In a few cases, however, fracking has led directly to earthquakes larger than magnitude 2.0, including at sites in Oklahoma, Ohio, England, and Canada. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Underground Injection Control (UIC) program under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates the subsurface injection of fluids to prevent endangerment of drinking water sources. EPA has established regulations for six classes of injection wells, including Class II wells used for the injection of fluids for enhanced oil and gas recovery and wastewater disposal. Most oil and gas states administer the UIC Class II program. The SDWA does not address seismicity, although EPA regulations for certain classes of injection wells require some evaluation of seismic risk. Such requirements do not apply to Class II wells; however, EPA has developed a framework for evaluating seismic risk when reviewing Class II permit applications in states where EPA administers this program. How Congress shapes EPA or other agency efforts to address and possibly mitigate human-caused earthquakes may be an issue in the 114th Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Tiemann, Mary

  2014-12-22
• National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP): Issues in Brief [August 27, 2014]

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  "Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These agencies assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program encompasses how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 (P.L. 108-360). P.L. 108-360 authorized appropriations for NEHRP through FY2009. Total funding enacted from reauthorization through FY2009 was $613.2 million, approximately 68% of the total amount of $902.4 million authorized by P.L. 108-360. Although authorization for appropriations expired in 2009, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for NEHRP activities. NEHRP agencies spent $119.5 million for program activities in FY2013, less than FY2012 spending of $124.1 million and less than the FY2014 enacted amount of $121.4. Also, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA; P.L. 111-5) provided some additional funding for earthquake activities under NEHRP."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2014-08-27
• Clean Coal Loan Guarantees and Tax Incentives: Issues in Brief [August 19, 2014]

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  "Coal represents a major energy resource for the United States. Coal-fired power plants provided approximately 37% of U.S. generated electricity (about 1.5 billion megawatt-hours) in 2012, while consuming over 800 million tons of coal. Power plants that use coal are also a major source of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, contributing approximately 28% of total U.S. CO2 emissions in 2012. As part of federal efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, loan guarantees and tax incentives have been made available to support private sector investment in 'clean coal.' Both loan guarantees and tax incentives were included in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT05, P.L. [Public Law] 109-58). [...] Regarding tax incentives, Congress might consider several options: (1) maintain the status quo, which would allow existing tax incentives to phase out; (2) authorize additional funding for existing tax incentives; or (3) redesign tax incentives for clean coal or carbon capture and sequestration related technologies. Several projects that were previously allocated tax credits have been cancelled. A question for Congress is whether there is demand for tax benefits in their current form. Further, are tax incentives an effective tool for encouraging investment in clean coal technologies?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sherlock, Molly F.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2014-08-19
• Shale Energy Technology Assessment: Current and Emerging Water Practices [July 14, 2014]

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  "Shale oil and gas (collectively referred to as shale energy), long considered 'unconventional' hydrocarbon resources, are now being developed rapidly. Economic extraction of shale energy resources typically relies on the use of hydraulic fracturing. This technique often requires significant amounts of freshwater, and fracturing flowback and related wastewaters must be recycled or disposed of after a well is completed. While shale energy presents a significant energy resource, its development has the potential to pose risks to water availability and water quality. This report provides a technological assessment of existing and emerging water procurement and management practices in shale energy-producing regions of the United States. The intersection of evolving technology, growing environmental concerns, demand for new sources of hydrocarbon energy, and the potential national interests in developing shale oil and gas resources provides the context for this study. Congressional attention has been focused on two key aspects of the issue: shale energy as a growing U.S. energy source, and environmental concerns associated with the development of these resources."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tiemann, Mary; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Carter, Nicole T.

  2014-07-14
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Current Understanding [June 25, 2015]

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  "Drought is a natural hazard, often with significant societal, economic, and environmental consequences. Public policy issues related to drought range from how to identify and measure drought to how best to prepare for, mitigate, and respond to drought impacts, and who should bear associated costs. Severe droughts in 2011 and 2012 in Texas and the midcontinent region, the current drought in California and parts of other western states, and 15 years of dry conditions in the Southwest have fueled congressional interest in drought and its near-term effects on water supplies and agriculture, as well as in long-term issues, such as drought forecasting and possible links between drought and human-induced climate change. […] One question is whether the parts of the United States, in particular the American Southwest, including California, may be experiencing the beginning of a modern-era megadrought. Because such megadroughts occurred previously, there is the possibility of a return to the long-term drought conditions experienced in previous centuries. Further, some postulate that droughts could be exacerbated if the future climate is warmer due to the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Predicting the severity and persistence of severe drought over a specific region of the country, however, is not yet possible more than a few months in advance because of the many factors that influence drought (e.g., precipitation, heat, soil moisture). The prospect of extended droughts and more arid baseline conditions--possibly exacerbated by greenhouse gas-driven warmer temperatures--in parts of the United States may challenge existing public policy responses for preparing for and responding to drought."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.

  2014-06-25
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Research, Development, and Demonstration at the U.S. Department of Energy [May 2, 2014]

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  "On September 20, 2013, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) re-proposed standards for carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from new fossil-fueled power plants. On January 8, 2014, EPA published the re-proposed rule in the Federal Register, triggering the start of a 60-day public comment period. The proposed rule places a new focus on whether the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) CCS research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) program will achieve its vision of developing an advanced CCS technology portfolio ready by 2020 for large-scale CCS deployment. As re-proposed, the standards would limit emissions of CO2 to no more than 1,100 pounds per megawatt-hour (lbs/Mwh) of production from new coal-fired power plants and between 1,000 and 1,100 lbs/Mwh (depending on size of the plant) for new natural gas-fired plants. EPA proposed the standard under Section 111 of the Clean Air Act. According to EPA, new natural gas-fired stationary power plants should be able to meet the proposed standards without additional cost and the need for add-on control technology. However, new coal-fired plants only would be able to meet the standards by installing carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. The re-proposed rule has sparked increased scrutiny of the future of CCS as a viable technology for reducing CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2014-05-02
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Current Understanding [February 26, 2014]

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  "Drought is a natural hazard, often with significant societal, economic, and environmental consequences. Public policy issues related to drought range from how to identify and measure drought to how best to prepare for, mitigate, and respond to drought impacts, and who should bear associated costs. Severe droughts in 2011 and 2012 in Texas and the midcontinent region, and the current drought in California and the American Southwest, have fueled congressional interest in drought and its near-term effects on water supplies and agriculture, as well as interest in long-term issues, such as drought forecasting and links between drought and human-induced climate change. Continuing drought conditions throughout the country contribute to ongoing interest in drought. Some part of the country is almost always experiencing drought at some level. Since 2000, no less than 6.6% of the land area of the United States has experienced drought of at least moderate intensity each year. The land area affected by drought of at least moderate intensity varies by year and also within a particular year. For example, since 2000, the total U.S. land area affected by drought of at least moderate intensity has varied from as little as 6.6% (July 6, 2010) to as much as 55% (September 25, 2012). Based on weekly estimates of the areal extent of drought conditions since 2000, the average amount of land area across the United States affected by at least moderate-intensity drought has been 27%."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.

  2014-02-26
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Research, Development, and Demonstration at the U.S. Department of Energy [February 10, 2014]

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  "On September 20, 2013, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) re-proposed standards for carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from new fossil-fueled power plants. On January 8, 2014, EPA published the re-proposed rule in the 'Federal Register', triggering the start of a 60-day public comment period. The proposed rule places a new focus on whether the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) CCS research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) program will achieve its vision of developing an advanced CCS technology portfolio ready by 2020 for large-scale CCS deployment. As re-proposed, the standards would limit emissions of CO2 to no more than 1,100 pounds per megawatt-hour (lbs/Mwh) of production from new coal-fired power plants and between 1,000 and 1,100 lbs/Mwh (depending on size of the plant) for new natural gas-fired plants. EPA proposed the standard under Section 111 of the Clean Air Act. According to EPA, new natural gas-fired stationary power plants should be able to meet the proposed standards without additional cost and the need for add-on control technology. However, new coal-fired plants only would be able to meet the standards by installing carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. The re-proposed rule has sparked increased scrutiny of the future of CCS as a viable technology for reducing CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2014-02-10
• FutureGen Carbon Capture and Sequestration Project: A Brief History and Issues for Congress [February 10, 2014]

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  "More than a decade after the George W. Bush Administration announced its signature clean coal power initiative--FutureGen--the program is still in early development. Since its inception in 2003, FutureGen has undergone changes in scope and design. As initially conceived, FutureGen would have been the world's first coal-fired power plant to integrate carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) with integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technologies. FutureGen would have captured and stored carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from coal combustion in deep underground saline formations and produced hydrogen for electricity generation and fuel cell research. Increasing costs of development, among other considerations, caused the Bush Administration to discontinue the project in 2008. In 2010, under the Obama Administration, the project was restructured as FutureGen 2.0: a coal-fired power plant that would integrate oxycombustion technology to capture CO2. FutureGen 2.0 is the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) most comprehensive CCS demonstration project, combining all three aspects of CCS technology: capturing and separating CO2 from other gases, compressing and transporting CO2 to the sequestration site, and injecting CO2 in geologic formations for permanent storage. Congressional interest in CCS technology centers on balancing the competing national interests of fostering low-cost, domestic sources of energy like coal against mitigating the effects of CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. FutureGen 2.0 would address these interests by demonstrating CCS technology as commercially viable."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2014-02-10
• Carbon Capture: A Technology Assessment [November 5, 2013]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or carbon capture and storage, CCS) is widely seen as a critical strategy for limiting atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)--the principal 'greenhouse gas' linked to global climate change--from power plants and other large industrial sources. This report focuses on the first component of a CCS system, the CO2 capture process. Unlike the other two components of CCS, transportation and geologic storage, the CO2 capture component of CCS is heavily technology-dependent. For CCS to succeed at reducing CO2 emissions from a significant fraction of large sources in the United States, CO2 capture technologies would need to be deployed widely. Widespread commercial deployment would likely depend, in part, on the cost of the technology deployed to capture CO2. This report assesses prospects for improved, lower-cost technologies for each of the three current approaches to CO2 capture: post-combustion capture; pre-combustion capture; and oxy-combustion capture."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-11-05
• Carbon Capture: A Technology Assessment [October 21, 2013]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is widely seen as a critical strategy for limiting atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)--the principal 'greenhouse gas' linked to global climate change--from power plants and other large industrial sources. This report focuses on the first component of a CCS system, the CO2 capture process. Unlike the other two components of CCS, transportation and geologic storage, the CO2 capture component of CCS is heavily technology-dependent. For CCS to succeed at reducing CO2 emissions from a significant fraction of large sources in the United States, CO2 capture technologies would need to be deployed widely. Widespread commercial deployment will likely depend, in part, on the cost of the technology deployed to capture CO2. This report assesses prospects for improved, lower-cost technologies for each of the three current approaches to CO2 capture: post-combustion capture; pre-combustion capture; and oxy-combustion capture. While all three approaches are capable of high capture efficiencies (typically about 90%), the major drawbacks of current processes are their high cost and the large energy requirements for operation. Another drawback is that at present there are still no full-scale applications of CO2 capture on a coal-fired or gas-fired power plant. However, a number of large-scale demonstration projects at both coal combustion and gasification-based power plants are planned or underway in the United States and elsewhere. Substantial research and development (R&D) activities are also underway in the United States and elsewhere to develop and commercialize lower-cost capture systems with smaller energy penalties."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-10-21
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Research, Development, and Demonstration at the U.S. Department of Energy [September 30, 2013]

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  "On September 20, 2013, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) re-proposed standards for carbon dioxide (CO2) from new fossil-fueled power plants. As re-proposed, the standards would limit emissions of CO2 to no more than 1,100 pounds per megawatt-hour of production from new coal-fired power plants and between 1,000 and 1,100 (depending on size of the plant) for new natural gas-fired plants. EPA proposed the standard under Section 111 of the Clean Air Act. According to EPA, new natural gas-fired stationary power plants should be able to meet the proposed standards without additional cost and the need for add-on control technology. However, new coal-fired plants only would be able to meet the standards by installing carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. The proposed standard allows a seven-year compliance period for coal-fired plants but would require a more stringent standard for those plants that limit CO2 emissions to an average of 1,000-1,050 pounds per megawatt-hour over the seven-year period. […] To date, there are no commercial ventures in the United States that capture, transport, and inject industrial-scale quantities of CO2 solely for the purposes of carbon sequestration. However, CCS research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) program has embarked on commercial-scale demonstration projects for CO2 capture, injection, and storage. The success of these projects will likely influence the future outlook for widespread deployment of CCS technologies as a strategy for preventing large quantities of CO2 from reaching the atmosphere while U.S. power plants continue to burn fossil fuels, mainly coal."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-09-30
• Ocean Acidification [July 30, 2013]

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  "On January 30, 2009, a Monaco Declaration was signed by more than 150 marine scientists from 26 countries, calling for immediate action by policymakers to reduce carbon dioxide emissions so as to avoid widespread and severe damage to marine ecosystems from ocean acidification. The Monaco Declaration is based on the Research Priorities Report developed by participants in an October 2008 international symposium on 'The Ocean in a High-CO2 World,' organized by UNESCO's [United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization] Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme. In December 2010, the United Nations Environment Programme highlighted the emerging concerns over the relationship between ocean acidification and food security. While not yet fully understood, the ecological and economic consequences of ocean acidification could be substantial. Legislative attention by Congress on ocean acidification currently is focused on authorizing, funding, and coordinating research to increase knowledge about ocean acidification and its potential effects on marine ecosystems."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Upton, Harold F. (Harold Frank); Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-30
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [July 18, 2013]

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  "Close to 75 million people in 39 states face some risk from earthquakes. Earthquake hazards are greatest in the western United States, particularly in California, but also in Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and Hawaii. Earthquake hazards are also prominent in the Rocky Mountain region and the New Madrid Seismic Zone (a portion of the central United States), as well as in portions of the eastern seaboard, particularly South Carolina. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), the federal government supports efforts to assess and monitor earthquake hazards and risk in the United States. Given the potentially huge costs associated with a large, damaging earthquake in the United States, an ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported earthquake programs are appropriate for the earthquake risk. This report discusses: [1] earthquake hazards and risk in the United States, [2] federal programs that support earthquake monitoring, [3] the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and issue notifications and warnings, and [4] federally supported research to improve the fundamental scientific understanding of earthquakes with a goal of reducing U.S. vulnerability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-18
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS): A Primer [July 16, 2013]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--is a physical process that involves capturing manmade carbon dioxide (CO2) at its source and storing it before its release to the atmosphere. CCS could reduce the amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere despite the continued use of fossil fuels. An integrated CCS system would include three main steps: (1) capturing CO2 and separating it from other gases; (2) purifying, compressing, and transporting the captured CO2 to the sequestration site; and (3) injecting the CO2 in subsurface geological reservoirs or storing it in the oceans. As a measure for mitigating global climate change, CCS has attracted congressional interest and support because several projects in the United States and abroad--typically associated with oil and gas production--are successfully capturing, injecting, and storing CO2 underground, albeit at relatively small scales. The oil and gas industry in the United States injects nearly 50 million metric tons of CO2 underground each year to help recover oil and gas resources (a process known as enhanced oil recovery, or EOR). Potentially, much larger amounts of CO2 produced from electricity generation--approximately 2.1 billion metric tons per year, about 40% of the total CO2 emitted in the United States from fossil fuels (see Table 1)--could be targeted for large-scale CCS."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-16
• National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP): Issues in Brief [July 9, 2013]

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  "Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These agencies assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program encompasses how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 (P.L. [Public Law] 108-360). P.L. 108-360 authorized appropriations for NEHRP through FY2009. Total funding enacted from reauthorization through FY2009 was $613.2 million, approximately 68% of the total amount of $902.4 million authorized by P.L. 108-360. Although authorization for appropriations expired in 2009, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for NEHRP activities. NEHRP agencies spent $125.5 million for program activities in FY2012, slightly less than FY2011 spending of $126.6 million. Also, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA; P.L. 111-5) provided some additional funding for earthquake activities under NEHRP. What effect funding at the levels enacted through FY2013 under NEHRP has had on the U.S. capability to detect earthquakes and minimize losses after an earthquake occurs is difficult to assess. The effectiveness of the NEHRP program is a perennial issue for Congress: it is inherently difficult to capture precisely, in terms of dollars saved or fatalities prevented, the effectiveness of mitigation measures taken before an earthquake occurs. A major earthquake in a populated urban area within the United States would cause damage, and in question is how much damage would be prevented by mitigation strategies underpinned by the NEHRP program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-09
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Research, Development, and Demonstration at the U.S. Department of Energy [June 10, 2013]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--is a physical process that involves capturing manmade carbon dioxide (CO2) at its source and storing it before its release to the atmosphere. CCS could reduce the amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere while allowing the continued use of fossil fuels at power plants and other large, industrial facilities. An integrated CCS system would include three main steps: (1) capturing CO2 at its source and separating it from other gases; (2) purifying, compressing, and transporting the captured CO2 to the sequestration site; and (3) injecting the CO2 into subsurface geological reservoirs. Following its injection into a subsurface reservoir, the CO2 would need to be monitored for leakage and to verify that it remains in the target geological reservoir. Once injection operations cease, a responsible party would need to take title to the injected CO2 and ensure that it stays underground in perpetuity. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has pursued research and development of aspects of the three main steps leading to an integrated CCS system since 1997. Congress has appropriated approximately $6 billion in total since FY2008 for CCS research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) at DOE's Office of Fossil Energy: approximately $2.7 billion in total annual appropriations (including FY2013), and $3.4 billion from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (P.L. 111-5, enacted February 17, 2009, hereinafter referred to as the Recovery Act). The large and rapid influx of funding for industrial-scale CCS projects from the Recovery Act may accelerate development and demonstration of CCS in the United States, particularly if the RD&D pursued by DOE's CCS program achieves its goals as outlined in the department's 2010 RD&D 'CCS Roadmap'. However, the future deployment of CCS may take a different course if the major components of the DOE program follow a path similar to DOE's FutureGen project, which has experienced delays and multiple changes of scope and design since its inception in 2003.3 This report aims to provide a snapshot of the DOE CCS program, including its current funding levels and the budget request for FY2014, together with some discussion of the program's achievements and prospects for success in meeting its stated goals."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-06-10
• Earthquake Risk and U.S. Highway Infrastructure: Frequently Asked Questions [June 5, 2013]

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  "The 9.0 magnitude earthquake that struck off the coast of Sendai, Japan, on March 11, 2011, renewed concerns about the seismic risk to America's infrastructure, including its highways. Concerns about the U.S. highway system's seismic risk stem from interest in protecting public safety, facilitating response and recovery efforts, and minimizing economic loss and social disruption. Seismic resilience of the U.S. highway system has improved in recent decades as investments have been made to build new, more resilient infrastructure and to retrofit existing structures. However, not all existing highway infrastructure has been retrofitted, and no infrastructure can be constructed in a cost-effective manner to be immune from the most intense earthquakes, so some seismic risk to the U.S. highway system remains. Although earthquake hazards in the United States generally are well documented, little national or federal data exist about the seismic risk to U.S. highway infrastructure. Instead, seismic highway risks typically are assessed and addressed by state and local entities which are generally responsible for building and maintaining that infrastructure. The federal government supports these nonfederal efforts by providing data on the seismic hazard for different locations, assisting in the development of construction standards and guidelines, and undertaking research, training, and the development of tools to assist in risk reduction. In limited circumstances, the federal government invests directly in improving resiliency of specific highway structures. This report addresses frequently asked questions about the risk from earthquakes to highway systems, including bridges, tunnels, pavements, and other highway components. Particular attention is given to highway bridges, which often are the most vulnerable highway structures. The report also discusses federal and nonfederal actions to reduce seismic risk to the U.S. highway system. Japan is generally regarded as the country with the most earthquake-resilient infrastructure. Research into the performance of Japan's highway structures and systems during and after the massive Sendai earthquake and resulting tsunami is ongoing. Japanese and U.S. earthquake science and engineering researchers have well-established collaborations aimed at gathering empirical data and drawing lessons from significant events. It is too soon to know how the events in Japan will affect understanding of the seismic risk of U.S. highway infrastructure, and whether changes in U.S. seismic highway design standards and guidance will result."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Carter, Nicole T.; Mallett, William

  2013-06-05
• Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes in the United States [May 22, 2013]

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  "Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes affect communities across the United States every year, causing fatalities, destroying property and crops, and disrupting businesses. Tornadoes are the most destructive products of severe thunderstorms, and second only to flash flooding as the cause for most thunderstorm-related fatalities. Damages from violent tornadoes seem to be increasing, similar to the trend for other natural hazards--in part due to changing population, demographics, and more weather-sensitive infrastructure--and some analysts indicate that losses of $1 billion or more from single tornado events are becoming more frequent. Policies that could reduce U.S. vulnerability to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes include improvements in the capability to accurately detect storms and to effectively warn those in harm's way. The National Weather Service (NWS) has the statutory authority to forecast weather and issue warnings. Some researchers suggest that there are limits to the effectiveness of improvements in forecasting ability and warning systems for reducing losses and saving lives from severe weather. The research suggests that, for example, social, behavioral, and demographic factors now play an increasingly important role in tornado-related fatalities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-05-22
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Issues for Congress [April 22, 2013]

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  "This report discusses how drought is defined (e.g., why drought in one region of the country is different from drought in another region), and why drought occurs in the United States. How droughts are classified, and what is meant by moderate, severe, and extreme drought classifications, are also discussed. The report briefly describes periods of drought in the country's past that equaled or exceeded drought conditions experienced during the 20th century. This is followed by a discussion of the future prospects for a climate in the western United States that might be drier than the average 20th-century climate. The report concludes with a primer on policy challenges for Congress, such as the existing federal/nonfederal split in drought response and management and the patchwork of drought programs subject to oversight by multiple congressional committees."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.; Carter, Nicole T.

  2013-04-22
• FutureGen: A Brief History and Issues for Congress [April 3, 2013]

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  "FutureGen is a clean-coal technology program managed through a public-private partnership between the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the FutureGen Industrial Alliance. The FutureGen program as originally conceived in 2003 by the George W. Bush Administration had the intent of constructing a net zero-emission fossil-fueled power plant with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. CCS is a process envisioned to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from burning fossil fuels and store it in deep underground geologic formations, thus preventing its release into the atmosphere. If widely deployed in the United States, CCS could decrease the amount of U.S.-emitted CO2, a greenhouse gas associated with climate change. In 2008, DOE withdrew from the FutureGen partnership, citing rising costs of construction as its reason. Subsequently, DOE restructured the FutureGen program to instead develop two or three demonstration projects in different power plants around the country. In 2010, the Obama administration announced another change to the program with the introduction of FutureGen 2.0, which would retrofit an existing coal-fueled power plant in Illinois with CCS technology. […] This report briefly summarizes the history of FutureGen, discusses why it has gained interest and support from some Members of Congress and the Administration while remaining in initial stages of development, and offers some policy considerations on barriers that challenge its further development as a model for a CCS program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-04-03
• Prospects for Coal in Electric Power and Industry [February 4, 2013]

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  "For most of the twentieth century, the primary use of coal in the United States was for electric power generation, and for most of the history of power generation in the United States, coal has been the dominant fuel used to produce electricity. Even as recently as 2011, coal was the fuel used for almost 42% of power generation in the United States accounting for 93% of coal use. Industrial uses represented the remaining 7%. However, in April 2012, coal's share of the power generation market dropped to about 32% (according to Energy Information Administration statistics), equal to that of natural gas. Coal was the fuel of choice because of its availability and the relatively low cost of producing electricity in large, coal-burning power plants which took advantage of coal's low-priced, high energy content to employ economies of scale in steam-electric production. However, coal use for power generation seems to be on the decline, and the magnitude of coal's role for power generation is in question. Two major reasons are generally seen as being responsible: the expectation of a dramatic rise in natural gas supplies, and the impact of environmental regulations on an aging base of coal-fired power plants."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Campbell, Richard J.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Brown, Phillip (Specialist in Energy Policy)

  2013-02-04
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Issues for Congress [August 15, 2012]

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  "Drought is a natural hazard with often significant societal, economic, and environmental consequences. Public policy issues related to drought range from how to identify and measure drought to how best to prepare for, mitigate, and respond to drought impacts, and who should bear associated costs. The 2012 drought is fueling congressional interest in near-term issues, such as current (and recently expired) federal programs and their funding, and long-term issues, such as improving drought forecasting and the mix of federal drought relief and mitigation actions. As of August 2012, drought has extended across more than two-thirds of the United States and has adversely affected agricultural producers and others. More than 1,400 counties in 33 states have been designated as disaster counties by the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture. Several bills are pending in Congress that would provide drought assistance or otherwise address current drought conditions. Most attention has focused on the extension of expired disaster assistance programs in separate versions of a 2012 farm bill (Senate-passed S. 3240 and House Agriculture Committee-passed H.R. [House Resolution] 6083), and a House-passed stand alone bill (H.R. 6233) to provide livestock and disaster tree assistance for FY2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.; Carter, Nicole T.

  2012-08-15
• Drought in the United States: Causes and Issues for Congress [June 12, 2012]

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  "This report discusses how drought is defined (e.g., why drought in one region of the country is different from drought in another region), and why drought occurs in the United States. How droughts are classified, and what is meant by moderate, severe, and extreme drought classifications, are also discussed. The report briefly describes periods of drought in the country's past that equaled or exceeded drought conditions experienced during the 20th century. This is followed by a discussion of the future prospects for a climate in the West that would be drier than the average 20th-century climate. The report concludes with a primer on policy challenges for Congress, such as the existing federal/non-federal split in drought response and management and the patchwork of drought programs subject to oversight by multiple congressional committees. An exhaustive discussion of each policy challenge facing Congress is beyond the scope of this report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Cody, Betsy A.; Carter, Nicole T.

  2012-06-12
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS): A Primer [May 14, 2012]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--is a physical process that involves capturing manmade carbon dioxide (CO2) at its source and storing it before its release to the atmosphere. CCS could reduce the amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere despite the continued use of fossil fuels. An integrated CCS system would include three main steps: (1) capturing CO2 and separating it from other gases; (2) purifying, compressing, and transporting the captured CO2 to the sequestration site; and (3) injecting the CO2 in subsurface geological reservoirs or storing it in the oceans. […] This report is a brief summary of what CCS is, how it is supposed to work, why it has gained the interest and support of some members of Congress, and what some of the challenges are to its implementation and deployment across the United States. Several other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports cover different aspects of CCS in more detail, such as capture technology, challenges to siting and infrastructure, policy challenges to a comprehensive climate policy, and others. These are listed in the last section of this report, titled 'Other CRS Reports.' This report covers only CCS and not other types of carbon sequestration activities whereby CO2 is removed from the atmosphere and stored in vegetation or soils, such as forests and agricultural lands."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2012-05-14
• Issues and Challenges for Federal Geospatial Information [April 27, 2012]

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  "Congress has recognized the challenge of coordinating and sharing geospatial data from the local, county, and state level to the national level, and vice versa. The cost to the federal government of gathering and coordinating geospatial information has also been an ongoing concern. As much as 80% of government information has a geospatial component, according to various sources. The federal government's role has changed from being a primary provider of authoritative geospatial information to coordinating and managing geospatial data and facilitating partnerships. Congress explored issues of cost, duplication of effort, and coordination of geospatial information in hearings during the 108th Congress. However, challenges to coordinating how geospatial data are acquired and used-collecting duplicative data sets, for example-at the local, state, and federal levels, in collaboration with the private sector, are not yet resolved. Two bills introduced in the 112th Congress, H.R. 1620 and H.R. 4322, would address aspects of duplication and coordination of geospatial information. [...] This report discusses issues that may be of interest to Congress-managing, sharing, and coordinating geospatial information-and includes examples of legislation. This report also summarizes a diverse set of recommendations and proposals from different non-governmental organizations for how to improve the coordination and management of geospatial information at the federal and state levels."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2012-04-27
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Research, Development, and Demonstration at the U.S. Department of Energy [April 23, 2012]

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  "On March 27, 2012, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed a new rule that would limit emissions to no more than 1,000 pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2) per megawatt-hour of production from new fossil-fuel power plants with a capacity of 25 megawatts or larger. EPA proposed the rule under Section 111 of the Clean Air Act. According to EPA, new natural gasfired combined-cycle power plants should be able to meet the proposed standards without additional cost. However, new coal-fired plants would only be able to meet the standards by installing carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. The proposed rule has sparked increased scrutiny of the future of CCS as a viable technology for reducing CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants. The proposed rule also places a new focus on whether the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) CCS research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) program will achieve its vision of developing an advanced CCS technology portfolio ready by 2020 for large-scale CCS deployment. Congress has appropriated nearly $6 billion since FY2008 for CCS RD&D at DOE's Office of Fossil Energy: approximately $2.3 billion from annual appropriations and $3.4 billion from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (or Recovery Act). The large and rapid influx of funding for industrial-scale CCS projects from the Recovery Act may accelerate development and deployment of CCS in the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2012-04-23
• Nuclear Power Plant Design and Seismic Safety Considerations [January 12, 2012]

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  "The earthquake and subsequent tsunami that devastated Japan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station and the earthquake that forced the North Anna, VA, nuclear power plant's temporary shutdown have focused attention on the seismic criteria applied to siting and designing commercial nuclear power plants. Some Members of Congress have questioned whether U.S nuclear plants are more vulnerable to seismic threats than previously assessed, particularly given the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC's) ongoing reassessment of seismic risks at certain plant sites. The design and operation of commercial nuclear power plants operating in the United States vary considerably because most were custom-designed and custom-built. Boiling water reactors (BWRs) directly generate steam inside the reactor vessel. Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) use heat exchangers to convert the heat generated by the reactor core into steam outside of the reactor vessel. U.S. utilities currently operate 104 nuclear power reactors at 65 sites in 31 states; 69 are PWR designs and the 35 are BWR designs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2012-01-12
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [September 2, 2011]

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  "The United States faces the possibility of large economic losses from earthquake-damaged buildings and infrastructure. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has estimated that earthquakes cost the United States, on average, over $5 billion per year. California, Oregon, and Washington account for nearly $4.1 billion (77%) of the U.S. total estimated average annualized loss. California alone accounts for most of the estimated annualized earthquake losses for the nation. A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. One study of the damage caused by a hypothetical magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the San Andreas Fault in southern California projected as many as 1,800 fatalities and more than $200 billion in economic losses. An issue for the 112th Congress is whether existing federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program might revisit how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 (P.L. 108-360)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-09-02