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• World Trade Organization: The Hong Kong Ministerial [Updated January 20, 2006]

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  "The World Trade Organization (WTO) held its 6th Ministerial summit in Hong Kong from December 13-18, 2005. WTO Ministerials are held every two years to bring together trade ministers from member states, often to make political decisions for the body. Although an original goal of the Ministerial was to agree on a package of modalities (methods by which the round is negotiated) for the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations, this aim was dropped in order to avoid a high-profile failure similar to previous Ministerials at Cancun and Seattle. Rather, members agreed to some modest advancements in agriculture, industrial tariffs, and duty and quota-free access for least developed countries. The final outcome of these negotiations could provide a substantial boost to the world economy, but if the round itself is not completed, there may be repercussions for the WTO as an institution and for the architecture of the world trading system. [...] The outcome of the Ministerial potentially has significant implications for Congress. Any agreement resulting from the round must be approved by Congress, and there is pressure to come to an agreement well before the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority on July 1, 2007. In addition, any agreement on agriculture may affect the drafting or necessitate the revision of the next farm bill that may be considered by Congress in 2007. Congress has also expressed an interest in shielding U.S. trade remedy laws from negotiations. This report will be updated to reflect the outcome of the Ministerial."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jones, Vivian Catherine . . .

  2006-01-20
• World Trade Organization: The Hong Kong Ministerial [Updated December 9, 2005]

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  "The 148 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) are preparing for the 6th Ministerial summit to be held in Hong Kong on December 13-18, 2005. WTO Ministerials are held every two years to bring together trade ministers from member states, often to make political decisions for the body. The Hong Kong Ministerial will be used to 'take stock' of the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations. The members will not be asked to agree to a package of modalities (methods by which the round is negotiated) because substantial disagreements are still evident among the members. The outcome of these negotiations could provide a substantial boost to the world economy, but if the round itself is not completed, there may be repercussions for the WTO as an institution and for the architecture of the world trading system. [...] The outcome of the Ministerial potentially has significant implications for Congress. Any agreement resulting from the round must be approved by Congress, and there is pressure to come to an agreement well before the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority on July 1, 2007. In addition, any agreement on agriculture may affect the drafting or necessitate the revision of the next farm bill that may be considered by Congress in 2007. Congress has also expressed an interest in shielding U.S. trade remedy laws from negotiations. This report will be updated to reflect the outcome of the Ministerial."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jones, Vivian Catherine . . .

  2005-12-09
• Global Climate Change [Updated January 30, 2002]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2002-01-30
• Global Climate Change [Updated October 29, 2004]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative, depending on regional or national variations. A warmer climate would probably have far-reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and unmanaged ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level, depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decision makers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2004-10-29
• Global Climate Change [Updated March 27, 2002]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2002-03-27
• Global Climate Change [Updated May 12, 2006]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have contributed to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe significant global warming would occur through intensification of Earth' s natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative, depending on regional or national variations. [...] In March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol, and thus the United States is not party to it (and therefore is not subject to its requirements) as it enters into force. President Bush concluded a cabinet-level climate policy review with an announcement in 2002 of a 'new approach' for the United States based on reducing the greenhouse gas intensity (greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP) of the U.S. economy. This report briefly reviews the status of climate science, international negotiations, and congressional activity focused specifically on climate change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2006-05-12
• Global Climate Change [Updated March 21, 2006]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have contributed to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe significant global warming would occur through intensification of Earth' s natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative, depending on regional or national variations. [...] In March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol, and thus the United States is not party to it (and therefore is not subject to its requirements) as it enters into force. President Bush concluded a cabinet-level climate policy review with an announcement in 2002 of a 'new approach' for the United States based on reducing the greenhouse gas intensity (greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP) of the U.S. economy. This report briefly reviews the status of climate science, international negotiations, and congressional activity focused specifically on climate change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2006-03-21
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated July 21, 2005]

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  "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' This treaty would commit the United States, if it were to ratify the Protocol, to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States that would be required to meet the target was estimated to be lower than 7%. The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. However, the Clinton Administration did not submit the Protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997 - meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases - had not been met. In late March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol. The United States continued to attend the annual conferences of the parties (COPs) to the UNFCCC, but did not participate in Kyoto Protocol-related negotiations. In February, 2002, President Bush announced a U.S. policy for climate change that will rely on domestic, voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years. [...] This report is intended to provide background on the Kyoto Protocol and its terms. It will be updated annually or as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2005-07-21
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated February 16, 2005]

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  "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' This treaty would commit the United States, if it were to ratify the Protocol, to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States that would be required to meet the target was estimated to be lower than 7%. The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. However, the Clinton Administration did not submit the Protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997 - meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases - had not been met. In late March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol. The United States continued to attend the annual conferences of the parties (COPs) to the UNFCCC, but did not participate in Kyoto Protocol-related negotiations. In February, 2002, President Bush announced a U.S. policy for climate change that will rely on domestic, voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years. [...] This report is intended to provide background on the Kyoto Protocol and its terms. It will be updated annually or as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2005-02-16
• Global Climate Change [Updated September 26, 2001]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question is: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2001-09-26
• Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by the Environmental Protection Agency [Updated February 28, 2007]

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  "The authorities and responsibilities of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) derive primarily from a dozen major environmental statutes. This report, updated at the beginning of each Congress, provides a brief summary of EPA's present major authorities and responsibilities. It abstracts EPA-administered statutes, with each chapter providing a discrete analysis. It also explains how each act is structured, defines key terms, and reports the current authorization status of each act. The overall strategy of pollution control and the major programs authorized by each act are discussed. At the beginning of each chapter is a list of all major amendments to the parent statute, while the final table in each chapter cites the major 'U.S. Code' sections of the codified statute, offering ready reference to the codified sections. Table 1 shows the current status of statutory authorizations for appropriations. While these summaries outline the major provisions of each statute, they necessarily omit many details and secondary provisions, and even some major components are only briefly mentioned. Moreover, this report describes the statutes without discussing their implementation. For example, statutory deadlines to control pollutant discharges and achieve particular mandates have often been missed as a result of delayed standard setting by EPA. Other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports discuss current developments and analyze implementation and associated regulations for many of the individual laws covered in this report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Copeland, Claudia; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2007-02-28
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 109th Congress [Updated April 27, 2005]

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  "Environmental protection concerns span a wide variety of issues, including clean air, water quality, chemical security, and environmental aspects of other major issue areas such as transportation and defense. This issue brief provides an overview of key environmental issues that are receiving or may receive attention in the 109th Congress. The sections on specific issues contain references to more detailed and extensive CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports on the subjects covered. […] Early in the year the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee held hearings and scheduled markup of S. 131, the Clear Skies Act. However, the bill failed on a tie vote March 9, 2005, owing to the contentious nature of the debate over whether clean air regulation would be made more effective or weakened by the legislation, and whether it should include carbon dioxide. On March 16, 2005, the same committee ordered reported S. 606, the Reliable Fuels Act, which would amend the Clean Air Act to ban the gasoline additive MTBE, and providing for a replacement additive -- ethanol. […](It should be noted that this issue brief treats mainly pollution-related matters; for natural resource management issues, see CRS Report RL32699, 'Natural Resources: Selected Issues for the 109th Congress.')"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret

  2005-04-27
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 109th Congress [Updated August 21, 2006]

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  "Environmental protection concerns span a wide variety of issues, including clean air, water quality, chemical security, and environmental aspects of other major issue areas, such as energy, transportation, disaster relief and cleanup, and defense. This report provides an overview of key environmental issues receiving attention in the 109th Congress. A number of environmental measures have been the subject of congressional activity, some of them as part of comprehensive bills and laws on broader subjects such as energy and transportation. On August 8, 2005, President Bush signed P.L. 109-58 (H.R. 6), the Energy Policy Act of 2005, an omnibus energy package that contains numerous environmentally related provisions. Perhaps the most important include a renewable fuel standard and streamlined environmental permitting. On August 10, 2005, the President signed the transportation reauthorization bill, P.L. 109-59. This law, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), contains various environmental provisions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret; Bearden, David M. . . .

  2006-08-21
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 109th Congress [June 23, 2006]

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  "Environmental protection concerns span a wide variety of issues, including clean air, water quality, chemical security, and environmental aspects of other major issue areas, such as energy, transportation, disaster relief and cleanup, and defense. This report provides an overview of key environmental issues receiving attention in the 109th Congress. A number of environmental measures have been the subject of congressional activity, some of them as part of comprehensive bills and laws on broader subjects such as energy and transportation. On August 8, 2005, President Bush signed P.L. 109-58 (H.R. 6), the Energy Policy Act of 2005, an omnibus energy package that contains numerous environmentally related provisions. Perhaps the most important include a renewable fuel standard and streamlined environmental permitting. On August 10, 2005, the President signed the transportation reauthorization bill, P.L. 109-59. This law, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), contains various environmental provisions. Appropriations for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) affect many of the programs and issues discussed in this report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret; Bearden, David M. . . .

  2006-06-23
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 109th Congress [Updated April 12, 2006]

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  "Environmental protection concerns span a wide variety of issues, including clean air, water quality, chemical security, and environmental aspects of other major issue areas such as energy, transportation, and defense. This issue brief provides an overview of key environmental issues receiving attention in the 109th Congress. Most recently, the attention to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita involved a number of environmental concerns, including legislative proposals on matters such as emergency waivers of environmental requirements. A number of environmental measures have been the subject of congressional activity, some of them as part of comprehensive bills and laws on broader subjects such as energy and transportation. On August 8, 2005, President Bush signed P.L. 109-58 (H.R. 6), the Energy Policy Act of 2005, an omnibus energy package that contains numerous environmentally related provisions. Perhaps the most controversial include a renewable fuel standard and streamlined environmental permitting. On August 10, 2005, the President signed the transportation reauthorization bill, P.L. 109-59. This law, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), contains various environmental provisions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret

  2006-04-12
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 109th Congress [Updated January 31, 2006]

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  "Environmental protection concerns span a wide variety of issues, including clean air, water quality, chemical security, and environmental aspects of other major issue areas such as energy, transportation, and defense. This issue brief provides an overview of key environmental issues receiving attention in the 109th Congress. Most recently, the attention to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita involved a number of environmental concerns, and legislative proposals on matters such as emergency waivers of environmental requirements are before Congress. A number of environmental measures have been the subject of congressional activity, some of them as part of comprehensive bills and laws on broader subjects such as energy and transportation. On August 8, 2005, President Bush signed P.L. 109-58 (H.R. 6), the Energy Policy Act of 2005, an omnibus energy package that contains numerous environmentally related provisions. Perhaps the most controversial include a renewable fuel standard and streamlined environmental permitting. On August 10, 2005, the President signed the transportation reauthorization bill, P.L. 109-59. This law, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), contains various environmental provisions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret

  2006-01-31
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 108th Congress [Updated January 28, 2004]

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  "This issue brief provides an overview of some of the key environmental protection issues that have been and are likely to continue to be the focus of public and congressional attention. The individual sections below on specific issues reference more detailed CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports. Initially, the 108th Congress finalized FY2003 funding not completed by the 107th Congress. A consolidated appropriations act, H.J.Res. 2 (P.L. 108-7), included $8.0 billion for EPA. Budgetary attention next turned to the FY2004 appropriations, for which the EPA request was $7.6 billion. The House approved $8.0 billion in H.R. 2861, amended, on July 25 (H.Rept. 108-235). The Senate approved $8.1 billion in H.R. 2861, amended (S. 1584, S.Rept. 108-143), on November 18, 2003. Since October 1, continuing resolutions have funded EPA at the FY2003 level of $8.08 billion. A conference-approved omnibus appropriation bill, H.R. 2673 (H.Rept. 108- 401), funding EPA at $8.4 billion for FY2004 was signed into law on January 23, 2004 (P.L. 108-199). A number of other key issues have seen, or are likely to see, action in the 108th Congress, including leaking underground storage tanks that may contaminate water supplies, wastewater treatment utility and chemical facility security, expanding authority for an EPA ombudsman, environmental concerns in surface transportation reauthorization legislation, brownfields grants, environmental issues in comprehensive energy legislation, and defense cleanup and military/environment issues. These issues are discussed in this report, along with other issues likely to be on the environmental agenda: Clean Air Act issues; Clean Water Act; Safe Drinking Water Act; climate change; and alternative fuels and vehicles. (The major emphasis in this issue brief is on pollution-related issues; environmental issues focused on natural resource management are not included here.)"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret

  2004-01-28
• Global Climate Change [Updated December 14, 2001]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. [...] The United States has indicated it would continue its cabinet-level review of climate change, and would seek new approaches based on voluntary measures and market mechanisms, but no timeframe for a new U.S. proposal has emerged. Other parties continue to express hope that the United States will rejoin international efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2001-12-14
• Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol and International Actions [Updated June 8, 2007]

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  "The concerns over climate change, often termed 'global warming,' have emerged both in the United States and internationally as major policy issues. Reports in 2007 of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provided additional scientific underpinnings for these concerns, and the number of proposals and international meetings devoted to these issues has grown significantly during this year, as discussed in this report. The first treaty to address climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was completed and opened for signature in 1992. This treaty includes commitments to establish national action plans for voluntary measures that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000 in order to begin mitigating possible global warming. The United States was one of the first nations to sign and ratify this treaty, and it entered into force in 1994. However, it was soon concluded by parties to the treaty that mandatory reductions in emissions of the six major greenhouse gases (of which carbon dioxide, mainly from burning of fossil fuels, is the most prevalent) would be required. The resulting Kyoto Protocol, which was completed in 1997 and entered into force in February 2005, committed industrialized nations that ratify it to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of the six major greenhouse gases. The United States has not ratified the Protocol, and thus is not bound by its provisions. In March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol, and subsequently announced a U.S. policy for climate change that relies on voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years. "

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry, 1954-; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2007-06-08
• Climate Change: Issues Underlying Negotiations at the Bali Conference of Parties [November 26, 2007]

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  "As climate change has gained widespread attention as a critical issue facing the nations of the world, the negotiations to be held in Bali, Indonesia, December 3-14, 2007, are widely regarded as a critical next step in continuing to chart an international course to mitigate global warming and deal with its impacts. This report provides background on the negotiations in four sections: (1) a summary of the status of the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol that established mandatory limits on the six major greenhouse gases for the major developed nations (listed in 'Annex I' of the UNFCCC and generally referred to as 'Annex I countries'); (2) a brief review of the science and economics underlying concerns about climate change and related possible future goals to reduce greenhouse gases; (3) the progress to date of Annex I and non-Annex I nations under the Kyoto Protocol; and (4) an overview of the upcoming negotiations at the 13th conference of the parties of the UNFCCC (COP-13) and third meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP-3) in Bali. At a preliminary meeting leading up to the December COP/MOP, four key elements were outlined as the focus for a 'Bali road map': 1) mitigation of climate change (agreeing on emission reduction commitments); 2) adaptation to impacts of climate change; 3) financial assistance issues; and 4) technology development and transfer."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry, 1954-; Fletcher, Susan R.; Leggett, Jane A.

  2007-11-26
• Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol, Bali Negotiations, and International Actions [Updated November 20, 2007]

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  "The concerns over climate change, often termed 'global warming,' have emerged both in the United States and internationally as major policy issues. Reports in 2007 of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provided additional scientific underpinnings for these concerns, and the number of proposals and international meetings devoted to these issues has grown significantly during this year, as discussed in this report. The first treaty to address climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was completed and opened for signature in 1992. The resulting Kyoto Protocol, which was completed in 1997 and entered into force in February 2005, committed industrialized nations that ratify it to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of the six major greenhouse gases. The United States has not ratified the Protocol, and thus is not bound by its provisions. In March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol, and subsequently announced a U.S. policy for climate change that relies on voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years. As of November 2007, the UNFCCC Secretariat listed 174 nations and the European Union as parties to the Kyoto Protocol. Annual meetings of the parties continue, and attention at the meeting in Bali, Indonesia, December 3-14, 2007, will focus on finding agreement on a framework for negotiating a successor agreement to the Kyoto Protocol. Major challenges include finding agreement on the nature of commitments, if any, that would prove acceptable to all major players: current parties, developing countries that are major emitters, and the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry, 1954-; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2007-11-20
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated October 27, 2004]

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  "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' This treaty would commit the United States to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States that would be required to meet the target was estimated to be lower than 7%. The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. However, the Clinton Administration did not submit the Protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997 - meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases - had not been met. In late March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol. The United States continues to attend the annual conferences of the parties (COPs) to the UNFCCC, but does not participate in Kyoto Protocol-related negotiations. This report is intended to provide background on the Kyoto Protocol. It will be updated annually or as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2004-10-27
• Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol and International Actions [January 24, 2007]

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  "The first treaty to address climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was completed and opened for signature in 1992. This treaty includes commitments to establish national action plans for voluntary measures that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels in order to begin mitigating possible global warming. The United States was one of the first nations to sign and ratify this treaty, and it entered into force in 1994. Each of the industrialized nations listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol has a specified emissions target. Overall, the collective commitments are to reduce the Parties' emissions by at least 5% below their 1990 levels, averaged over the 'commitment period' 2008 to 2012. On a 'parallel track' of activities, the United States took an initiative in 2005, the Asia-Pacific Partnership for Clean Development and Climate, together with China, India, Japan, Australia, and South Korea, which is a voluntary effort (though without specific targets) to reduce the greenhouse gas intensity of their economies through technology cooperation. As of December 2006, the UNFCCC Secretariat reported that 168 nations and the European Union have ratified or accepted the Kyoto Protocol. Annual meetings of the parties continue, and attention during the negotiations has turned in large part to 'next steps' following the end of the commitment period in 2012, as well as a review of the effectiveness of the Protocol. Major challenges remain to find agreement on the nature of commitments, if any, that would prove acceptable to all major players: current parties, developing countries that are major emitters, and the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry, 1954-; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2007-01-24
• Global Climate Change: Major Scientific and Policy Issues [August 11, 2006]

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  "There is growing evidence that human activities are affecting the heat/energy exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space through an increase in 'greenhouse gases.' If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe significant global warming would continue to occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Over the past 100 years, particularly in recent decades, there have been measurable increases in global temperature and sea levels, decreases of sea ice in the Arctic, and melting among the world's continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers. Disagreements focus mainly on the magnitude and rate of change, the severity of estimated warming, and its projected impacts - both positive and negative. Moreover, wide variations of scientific opinion accompany model projections of a warmer world: if these increases in greenhouse gas emissions continue, global average temperature could rise anywhere from 2.7oF to 10.7oF over the next 100 years. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. and worldwide energy is derived from fossil fuels, options for reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases pose major challenges and controversy. This report briefly reviews the status of climate science, international negotiations, and congressional activity focused specifically on climate change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2006-08-11
• Biosafety Protocol for Genetically Modified Organisms: Overview [Updated January 18, 2001]

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  "The Biosafety Protocol to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted in January 2000, by the 176 nations that are parties to the CBD. Not having ratified the CBD, the United States participated in the negotiations as an observer, but nevertheless was an active participant in the discussions. The Protocol addresses a major area of concern that was not resolved by the parent CBD in 1992 - the safe handling, transfer and trade of biological organisms. In recent years, this issue has gained new prominence - and controversy - as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have become widely used as agricultural crops, and have become the focus of concern by U.S. trading partners and citizens around the world. While GMOs are widely used in U.S. crops, citizens and governments in many countries, particularly in Europe, have questioned the environmental and health safety of such products, and have rejected them in the marketplace.[…] Given the importance of the Protocol to U.S. interests, the United States is likely to remain an active participant in refining the elements set forth in it. A related issue is whether the United States is hampered in this participation by the fact that it has not ratified the parent Convention on Biological Diversity. Consequently, the United States cannot sign the Protocol and attends the related negotiations as an observer."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Segarra, Alejandro E.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2001-01-18
• Global Climate Change: Status of Negotiations [June 17, 2008]

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  "In December 2007, the parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held their 13th annual meeting in Bali, Indonesia, and began the process of working toward an agreement/treaty that would succeed the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC when it expires in 2012. The Protocol includes a mandate for a reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 38 developed/industrialized nations to an average of some 5% below their 1990 levels over the commitment period 2008- 2012. The outcome of this 'conference of the parties' (COP-13) in 2007 was the 'Bali Action Plan,' outlining considerations to be taken up in negotiations during the following two years. A 'decision' is to be negotiated and finalized at the parties' meeting (COP-15) at the end of 2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Whether this decision can encompass a follow-on treaty or instead reflect only progress toward such a treaty remains a question, given the short time until the 2009 deadline and the complexity of the issues involved. The broad array of these issues, briefly discussed in this report, has been described by some as comprising perhaps the most complex negotiations ever undertaken internationally."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2008-06-17
• Global Climate Change [Updated September 7, 2005]

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  "On February 16, 2005, the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) entered into force, committing those nations that have ratified it to specified mandatory reductions in greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels. The nations that have ratified the Protocol now represent 61.6% of the 1990 emissions baseline, with 55% being the amount that must be accounted for by industrialized countries that have ratified in order for the Protocol to enter into force. The United States is a party to the UNFCCC, but not to the Kyoto Protocol. As of August 31, 2005, some 155 nations or regional economic integration organizations had ratified or acceded to the Protocol."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2005-09-07
• Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [January 7, 2008]

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  "Several major statutes form the legal basis for the programs of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Many of these have been amended several times. The current provisions of each are briefly summarized in this report. The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) seeks to prevent pollution through reduced generation of pollutants at their point of origin. The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires EPA to set mobile source limits, ambient air quality standards, hazardous air pollutant emission standards, standards for new pollution sources, and significant deterioration requirements; and to focus on areas that do not attain standards. […] The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) regulates the testing of chemicals and their use, and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) governs pesticide products and their use. Parts of some statutes pre-existed the EPA's formation in 1970, but most of contemporary environmental law was established by Congress during the 1970s, and has been expanded by major amendments; Congress has assigned EPA the administration of a considerable body of law and associated programs. This report is not comprehensive in terms of all laws administered by EPA; it covers the major, basic authorities underlying EPA programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia; Luther, Linda G.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2008-01-07
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 109th Congress [May 22, 2006]

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  "Environmental protection concerns span a wide variety of issues, including clean air, water quality, chemical security, and environmental aspects of other major issue areas such as energy, transportation, and defense. This issue brief provides an overview of key environmental issues receiving attention in the 109th Congress. The attention to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita involved a number of environmental concerns, including legislative proposals on matters such as emergency waivers of environmental requirements. […] Early in 2005, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee held hearings and scheduled markup of S.131, the Clear Skies Act. However, the bill failed on a tie vote on March 9, 2005, owing to the contentious nature of the debate over whether clean air regulation would be made more effective or weakened by the legislation and whether it should include the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. The Administration continues to advocate passage of the clear skies bill. As bills receive floor action, they will be listed at the end of this report in Table 1, which briefly describes each bill and its current status. The sections on specific issues contain references to more detailed CRS reports. [Note: This issue brief treats mainly pollution-related matters; for natural resource management issues, see CRS Report RL32699, 'Natural Resources: Selected Issues for the 109th Congress'.]"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Isler, Margaret; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2006-05-22
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated January 15, 2003]

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  "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. This treaty would commit the United States to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States required to meet the target is estimated to be lower than 7%. The Clinton Administration did not submit the protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997-meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases-had not been met. However, in late March, the Bush Administration indicated its rejection of the Kyoto Protocol and announced a cabinet-level review of climate policy. This initiated a high-level but unsuccessful effort by the European nations to re-engage the United States in the Kyoto process. When the COP-6 meeting resumed in July 2001, the United States remained on the sidelines, following the Bush Administration's decision not to engage in negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. To the surprise of many, negotiators at this meeting reached agreement on most of the outstanding political issues, with compromises allowing significant credit for carbon sinks, and at the following COP-7 meeting in Marrakech, Morocco, in October- November, 2001, most remaining operational decisions were completed. As of January 3, 2003, the UNFCCC Secretariat reported that 102 nations have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, representing 43.9% of the emissions of developed countries with obligations outlined in the Protocol. In order to enter into force, the Protocol must be ratified by nations representing 55% of these emissions. In February, 2002, President Bush announced a U.S. policy for climate change that will rely on domestic, voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2003-01-15