Advanced search    Help

Clear all search criteria

Only 2/3! You are seeing results from the Public Collection, not the complete Full Collection. Sign in to search everything (see eligibility).

• World Trade Organization: Background and Issues [May 9, 2007]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, under an agreement reached during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. The Uruguay Round was the last of a series of periodic trade negotiations held under the auspices of the WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). […] Assisting the members is a WTO Secretariat that numbers about 594 and is located in Geneva, Switzerland. The top official of the Secretariat is Director- General Pascal Lamy of France, whose three-year term began on September 1, 2005. Trade agreements administered by the WTO cover a broad range of goods and services trade and apply to virtually all government practices that directly relate to trade, for example tariffs, subsidies, government procurement, and trade-related intellectual property rights. The WTO agreements are based on the principle of nondiscriminatory treatment among countries. Some exceptions however, such as preferential treatment for developing countries, are allowed. Other basic principles of the WTO are open information on rules and regulations, negotiated limits on trade barriers, and settlement of disputes under specific procedures. The 110th Congress may examine the relationship between the United States and the WTO in two ways. Congress may consider implementing legislation for a potential Doha Round agreement. An agreement will not be reached prior to the expiration of U.S. Trade Promotion Authority (TPA); however, Congress may extend or reauthorize TPA to consider such an agreement. Secondly, Congress may consider changes to U.S. laws in response to WTO dispute settlement procedures."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2007-05-09
• World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated May 8, 2007]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The World Trade Organization's (WTO) Doha Development Round of multilateral trade negotiations was suspended in July 2006 after key negotiating groups failed to break a deadlock on agricultural tariffs and subsidies. On January 31, 2007, Lamy announced the talks were back in 'full negotiating mode,' however formal negotiating sessions have not resumed in Geneva. The negotiations, which were launched at the 4th WTO Ministerial in 2001 at Doha, Qatar, have been characterized by persistent differences between the United States, the European Union, and developing countries on major issues, such as agriculture, industrial tariffs and non-tariff barriers, services, and trade remedies. Depending on the outcome, some U.S. industries may gain access to foreign markets, and others may see increased competition from imports. Likewise, some U.S. workers may be helped through increased access to foreign markets, but others may be hurt by import competition. […] Congress may also consider legislation to amend U.S. patent law to implement the TRIPS access to medicine decision, one of the few achievement of the round to date. In addition, Members of Congress may carefully scrutinize any agreement that may require changes to U.S. trade remedy laws. Three issues are among the most important to developing countries, in addition to concessions on agriculture. One issue, now resolved, pertained to compulsory licensing of medicines and patent protection. A second deals with a review of provisions giving special and differential treatment to developing countries. A third addresses problems that developing countries are having in implementing current trade obligations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2007-05-08
• World Trade Organization: Background and Issues [Updated January 23, 2007]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, under an agreement reached during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. The Uruguay Round was the last of a series of periodic trade negotiations held under the auspices of the WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). [...] Trade agreements administered by the WTO cover a broad range of goods and services trade and apply to virtually all government practices that directly relate to trade, for example tariffs, subsidies, government procurement, and trade-related intellectual property rights. The WTO agreements are based on the principle of nondiscriminatory treatment among countries. Some exceptions however, such as preferential treatment for developing countries, are allowed. Other basic principles of the WTO are open information on rules and regulations, negotiated limits on trade barriers, and settlement of disputes under specific procedures. The 110th Congress may examine the relationship between the United States and the WTO in two ways. Congress may consider implementing legislation for a potential Doha Round agreement. The Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations are now stalled, but if an agreement is reached, Congress may extend trade promotion authority (TPA) in order to consider such an agreement. Secondly, Congress may consider changes to U.S. laws in response to WTO Dispute Settlement procedures."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2007-01-23
• Export Administration Act: Evolution, Provisions, and Debate [Updated January 15, 2007]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The 110th Congress may consider legislation to renew, modify, or reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). In the 109th Congress, H.R. 4572 (Hyde) was introduced and referred to the International Relations Committee. The bill would have revised the EAA, especially in the areas of penalties, enforcement, and U.S. policy towards multilateral export control regimes. […] The EAA provides the statutory authority for export controls on sensitive dual-use goods and technologies: items that have both civilian and military applications, including those items that can contribute to the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical weaponry. […] At other times and currently, the export licensing system created under the authority of EAA has been continued by the invocation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). EAA confers upon the President the power to control exports for national security, […] In debates on export administration legislation, parties often fall into two camps: those who primarily want to liberalize controls in order to promote exports, and those who believe that further liberalization may compromise national security goals. […] The competing perspectives on export controls have clearly been manifested in the debate over foreign availability and the control of technology, the efficacy of multilateral control regimes, the licensing process and organization of the export control system, and the economic effects of U.S. export controls."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2007-01-15
• WTO, Intellectual Property Rights, and the Access to Medicines Controversy [December 12, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "In August 2003, the World Trade Organization (WTO) reached an agreement on the use of compulsory licenses by developing countries without manufacturing capacity to access life-sustaining medicines. This agreement was incorporated as an amendment to Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement on the eve of the Hong Kong Ministerial in December 2005. The issue of access to affordable medicines is one of great concern to developing countries whose health-care systems are often overwhelmed by HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases. Some developing countries have viewed the TRIPS agreement as an impediment in their attempts to combat such public health emergencies by restricting drug availability and by transferring scarce resources from developing countries to developed country manufacturers. For the developing world, the issue of compulsory licenses is an important test as to whether the WTO can meet the development needs of its members, and conversely, whether the developing world can influence the actions of the world trading system. […] The system of compulsory licensing may have a relatively modest effect on the availability of medicines in the developing world. Compulsory licenses have rarely been used by developing countries because many patent regimes did not protect pharmaceuticals before 2006. Countries providing patent protection to pharmaceuticals have used the threat of compulsory licensing as a method to negotiate lower drug prices. Although some countries have amended their national laws to allow compulsory licensing for pharmaceutical exports, there may be little economic incentive for a supplier to manufacture the product in the case of an LDC issuing a compulsory license."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-12-12
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated November 14, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional, and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The United States is participating in several other regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, and Singapore. Also during the 108th Congress, an agreement with Morocco was approved, but it did not take effect until January 1, 2006. Legislation to implement the Central American Free Trade Agreement and the FTA with Bahrain were approved by Congress in the first session of the 109th Congress. Negotiations are underway with Panama, Thailand, three Andean nations (Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador), and the United Arab Emirates. Negotiations have recently concluded with Peru, Colombia, and Oman. USTR [United States Trade Representative] announced the launch of FTA negotiations with South Korea on February 3, 2006, and with Malaysia on March 8. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-11-14
• United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [October 13, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The United States and Canada conduct the world's largest bilateral trade relationship, with total merchandise trade (exports and imports) exceeding $499.3 billion in 2005. The U.S.-Canadian relationship revolves around the themes of integration and asymmetry: integration from successive trade liberalization from the U.S.-Canada Auto Pact of 1965 leading to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and asymmetry resulting from Canadian dependence on the U.S. market and from the disparate size of the two economies. The economies of the United States and Canada are highly integrated, a process that has been accelerated by the bilateral U.S.- Canada free trade agreement (FTA) of 1988 and the NAFTA of 1994. Both are affluent industrialized economies, with similar standards of living and industrial structure. However, the two economies diverge in size, per capita income, productivity and net savings."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-10-13
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated September 15, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional, and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The United States is participating in several other regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, and Singapore. Also during the 108th Congress, an agreement with Morocco was approved, but it did not take effect until January 1, 2006. Legislation to implement the Central American Free Trade Agreement and the FTA with Bahrain were approved by Congress in the first session of the 109th Congress. Negotiations are underway with Panama, Thailand, three Andean nations (Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador), and the United Arab Emirates. Negotiations have recently concluded with Peru, Colombia, and Oman. USTR announced the launch of FTA negotiations with South Korea on February 3, 2006, and with Malaysia on March 8. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-09-15
• World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated August 2, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The World Trade Organization [WTO] was established in 1995 and is the principal international organization governing world trade. It has 149 member countries, representing over 95% of world trade. On November 9-14, 2001, trade ministers from WTO countries met in Doha, Qatar for its 4th Ministerial Conference. At that meeting, members agreed to a work program for a new round of multilateral trade negotiations. The work program folds on-going negotiations on agriculture and services into a broader agenda that includes industrial tariffs, topics of interest to developing countries, changes in WTO rules, and other provisions numbering 19 in all. Because of the influence that developing countries had in setting the work program, the round has become known as the Doha Development Agenda. Negotiations were to conclude by January 1, 2005, but this deadline was breached and the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority in July 2007 has become the de facto deadline for the round. Agriculture has been the linchpin in the Doha Development Agenda. U.S. goals are substantial reduction of trade-distorting domestic support; elimination of export subsidies, and improved market access. Industrial trade barriers and services are other market access topics in the negotiations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-08-02
• World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated July 10, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The World Trade Organization [WTO] was established in 1995 and is the principal international organization governing world trade. It has 149 member countries, representing over 95% of world trade. On November 9-14, 2001, trade ministers from WTO countries met in Doha, Qatar for its 4th Ministerial Conference. At that meeting, members agreed to a work program for a new round of multilateral trade negotiations. The work program folds on-going negotiations on agriculture and services into a broader agenda that includes industrial tariffs, topics of interest to developing countries, changes in WTO rules, and other provisions numbering 19 in all. Because of the influence that developing countries had in setting the work program, the round has become known as the Doha Development Agenda. Negotiations were to conclude by January 1, 2005, but this deadline was breached and the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority in July 2007 has become the de facto deadline for the round."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-07-10
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated July 6, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional, and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The United States is participating in several other regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, and Singapore. Also during the 108th Congress, an agreement with Morocco was approved, but it did not take effect until January 1, 2006. Legislation to implement the Central American Free Trade Agreement and the FTA with Bahrain were approved by Congress in the first session of the 109th Congress. Negotiations are underway with Panama, Thailand, three Andean nations (Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador), and the United Arab Emirates. Negotiations have recently concluded with Peru, Colombia, and Oman. USTR announced the launch of FTA negotiations with South Korea on February 3, 2006, and with Malaysia on March 8. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-07-06
• Trade Negotiations During the 109th Congress [June 15, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "For over 50 years, U.S. trade officials have negotiated multilateral trade agreements to achieve lower trade barriers and rules to cover international trade. During the 108th Congress, U.S. officials negotiated and Congress approved four bilateral free-trade agreements with Australia, Chile, Morocco, and Singapore. The Bush Administration is making bilateral and regional free-trade agreements more important elements of its trade policy. The multilateral arena is no longer the only means, or perhaps even the principal means, by which the United States is pursuing liberalized trade. Trade agreements are negotiated by the executive branch, although Congress has the ultimate Constitutional authority to regulate interstate and foreign commerce. Trade promotion authority (TPA) requires that the President consult with and advise Congress throughout the negotiating process. After the executive branch signs an agreement, Congress may consider implementing legislation if any statutory changes are required under the agreement. There is no deadline for submission of the legislation, but once a bill is submitted, TPA requires a final vote within 90 legislative days."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-06-15
• Export Administration Act: Evolution, Provisions, and Debate [Updated June 7, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The 109th Congress may consider legislation to renew and to reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). On December 16, 2005, H.R. 4572 (Hyde) was introduced and referred to the International Relations Committee. The bill would revise the EAA, especially in the areas of penalties, enforcement, and U.S. policy towards multilateral export control regimes. Through the EAA, Congress delegates to the executive branch its express constitutional authority to regulate foreign commerce by controlling exports. The EAA provides the statutory authority for export controls on sensitive dual-use goods and technologies: items that have both civilian and military applications, including those items that can contribute to the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical weaponry. The EAA, which originally expired in 1989, periodically has been reauthorized for short periods of time, with the last incremental extension expiring in August 2001. At other times and currently, the export licensing system created under the authority of EAA has been continued by the invocation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). EAA confers upon the President the power to control exports for national security, foreign policy or short supply purposes. It also authorizes the President to establish export licensing mechanisms for items detailed on the Commerce Control List (CCL), and it provides some guidance and places certain limits on that authority. The CCL currently provides detailed specifications for about 2,400 dual-use items including equipment, materials, software, and technology (including data and know-how) likely requiring some type of export license from the Commerce Department's Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-06-07
• World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated May 15, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Three issues are among the most important to developing countries, in addition to concessions on agriculture. One issue pertains to compulsory licensing of medicines and patent protection. A second deals with a review of provisions giving special and differential treatment to developing countries. A third addresses problems that developing countries are having in implementing current trade obligations. In other areas, negotiators are meeting to clarify and improve disciplines under the antidumping and subsidies agreements. These talks on trade remedies are being observed closely by some Members of Congress, who did not want the issue on the agenda at all. The 5th Ministerial Conference was held September 10-14, 2003 in Cancun, Mexico, but broke up without agreement. On July 31, 2004, WTO [World Trade Organization] members approved a Framework Agreement to guide remaining negotiations. The July 31 framework included important terms on agriculture and began new negotiations on trade facilitation. The 6th Ministerial was held in Hong Kong from December 13-18, 2005. Although an original goal of the Ministerial was to agree on a package of modalities for the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations, this aim was dropped and members agreed to some modest advancements in agriculture, industrial tariffs, and duty and quota-free access for least developed countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-05-15
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated May 10, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The controversial CAFTA (Central American Free Trade Agreement) -- an agreement signed with the five countries of the Central American Common Market (CACM) and the Dominican Republic -- was passed by the House on July 28, 2005, by a vote of 217- 215. Later in the day, the Senate approved the House version of the legislation to implement CAFTA, and President Bush signed it on August 2 (P.L. 109-53). In December 2005, Congress approved implementing legislation for the Bahrain FTA and President Bush signed the legislation of January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169). The United States is participating in several other regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, and Singapore. Also during the 108th Congress, an agreement with Morocco was approved, but it did not take effect until January 1, 2006. Negotiations are underway with Panama, Thailand, three Andean nations (Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador), and the United Arab Emirates. Negotiations have recently concluded with Peru, Colombia, and Oman. USTR announced the launch of FTA negotiations with South Korea on February 3, 2006, and with Malaysia on March 8. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-05-10
• United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [March 29, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The United States and Canada conduct the world's largest bilateral trade relationship, with total merchandise trade (exports and imports) exceeding $499.3 billion in 2005. The U.S.-Canadian relationship revolves around the themes of integration and asymmetry: integration from successive trade liberalization from the U.S.- Canada Auto Pact of 1965 leading to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and asymmetry resulting from Canadian dependence on the U.S. market and from the disparate size of the two economies. The economies of the United States and Canada are highly integrated, a process that has been accelerated by the bilateral U.S.-Canada free trade agreement (FTA) of 1988 and the NAFTA of 1994. Both are affluent industrialized economies, with similar standards of living and industrial structure. However, the two economies diverge in size, per capita income, productivity and net savings."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-03-29
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated March 21, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The controversial CAFTA (Central American Free Trade Agreement) -- an agreement signed with the five countries of the Central American Common Market (CACM) and the Dominican Republic -- was passed by the House on July 28, 2005, by a vote of 217- 215. Later in the day, the Senate approved the House version of the legislation to implement CAFTA, and President Bush signed it on August 2 (P.L. 109-53). In December 2005, Congress approved implementing legislation for the Bahrain FTA and President Bush signed the legislation of January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169). The United States is participating in several other regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, and Singapore. Also during the 108th Congress, an agreement with Morocco was approved, but it did not take effect until January 1, 2006. Negotiations are underway with the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), Panama, Thailand, three Andean nations (Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador), the United Arab Emirates, and Oman. Negotiations have recently concluded with Peru, Colombia, and Oman. USTR announced the launch of FTA negotiations with South Korea on February 3, 2006, and with Malaysia on March 8. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-03-21
• High Performance Computers and Export Control Policy: Issues for Congress [Updated January 25, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Congress has a strong interest in export control policy and technologies that may have both commercial and military applications outside of the United States. Through its constitutionally delegated authority to regulate foreign commerce, it has the authority to control exports for national security or foreign policy purposes. The 107th Congress is closely examining issues of national export control policy, including reauthorization of the Export Administration Act (EAA), and control policies concerning key technologies...Congressional interest in HPCs has primarily, but not exclusively, been focused on the dual-use applications of HPCs...The 108th Congress likely will again consider the reauthorization of the EAA...There are several issues that congressional policymakers are addressing concerning reauthorization of the Export Administration Act. One is proliferation-- who obtains this technology and how they use it. In response to concerns about proliferation, Congress legislated licensing, post-shipment verification and Congressional notification of exports and changes in licensing thresholds for HPCs. However, some contend that these safeguards and restrictions have not been effective. Another issue is the notification process, in which the executive branch not only notifies the legislative branch of HPC export control changes, but describes the national security implications as well...The U.S. computer industry has raised concerns about another issue-that restrictions only hurt U.S. commercial interests...Yet, there is no consensus as to what should replace MTOPS, if anything. Among the issues facing the 108th Congress are whether to maintain HPC export controls by using MTOPS, revise them by using a benchmark other than MTOPS, or completely eliminate controls in recognition of the worldwide availability of certain technology and rapid technological innovation." - From Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; McLoughlin, Glenn J.

  2006-01-25
• World Trade Organization: The Hong Kong Ministerial [Updated January 20, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The World Trade Organization (WTO) held its 6th Ministerial summit in Hong Kong from December 13-18, 2005. WTO Ministerials are held every two years to bring together trade ministers from member states, often to make political decisions for the body. Although an original goal of the Ministerial was to agree on a package of modalities (methods by which the round is negotiated) for the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations, this aim was dropped in order to avoid a high-profile failure similar to previous Ministerials at Cancun and Seattle. Rather, members agreed to some modest advancements in agriculture, industrial tariffs, and duty and quota-free access for least developed countries. The final outcome of these negotiations could provide a substantial boost to the world economy, but if the round itself is not completed, there may be repercussions for the WTO as an institution and for the architecture of the world trading system. [...] The outcome of the Ministerial potentially has significant implications for Congress. Any agreement resulting from the round must be approved by Congress, and there is pressure to come to an agreement well before the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority on July 1, 2007. In addition, any agreement on agriculture may affect the drafting or necessitate the revision of the next farm bill that may be considered by Congress in 2007. Congress has also expressed an interest in shielding U.S. trade remedy laws from negotiations. This report will be updated to reflect the outcome of the Ministerial."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jones, Vivian Catherine . . .

  2006-01-20
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated January 12, 2006]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The controversial CAFTA (Central American Free Trade Agreement) -- an agreement signed with the five countries of the Central American Common Market (CACM) and the Dominican Republic -- was passed by the House on July 28, 2005, by a vote of 217- 215. Later in the day, the Senate approved the House version of the legislation to implement CAFTA, and President Bush signed it on August 2 (P.L. 109-53). In December 2005, Congress approved implementing legislation for the Bahrain FTA and President Bush signed the legislation of January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169). The United States is participating in several other regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, and Singapore. Also during the 108th Congress, an agreement with Morocco was approved, but it did not take effect until January 1, 2006. Negotiations are underway with the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), Panama, Thailand, three Andean nations (Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador), the United Arab Emirates, and Oman. Negotiations have recently concluded with Peru and Oman. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2006-01-12
• World Trade Organization: The Hong Kong Ministerial [Updated December 9, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The 148 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) are preparing for the 6th Ministerial summit to be held in Hong Kong on December 13-18, 2005. WTO Ministerials are held every two years to bring together trade ministers from member states, often to make political decisions for the body. The Hong Kong Ministerial will be used to 'take stock' of the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations. The members will not be asked to agree to a package of modalities (methods by which the round is negotiated) because substantial disagreements are still evident among the members. The outcome of these negotiations could provide a substantial boost to the world economy, but if the round itself is not completed, there may be repercussions for the WTO as an institution and for the architecture of the world trading system. [...] The outcome of the Ministerial potentially has significant implications for Congress. Any agreement resulting from the round must be approved by Congress, and there is pressure to come to an agreement well before the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority on July 1, 2007. In addition, any agreement on agriculture may affect the drafting or necessitate the revision of the next farm bill that may be considered by Congress in 2007. Congress has also expressed an interest in shielding U.S. trade remedy laws from negotiations. This report will be updated to reflect the outcome of the Ministerial."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jones, Vivian Catherine . . .

  2005-12-09
• U.S. Trade and Investment Relationship with Sub-Saharan Africa: The African Growth and Opportunity Act and Beyond [Updated October 19, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Following the end of the apartheid era in South Africa in the early 1990s, the United States sought to increase economic relations with sub-Saharan Africa. President Clinton instituted several measures that dealt with investment, debt relief, and trade. Congress required the President to develop a trade and development policy for Africa. The economic challenges facing Africa today are serious. Unlike the period from 1960 to 1973, when economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa was strong, since 1973 the countries of sub-Saharan Africa have grown at rates well below other developing countries. There are some signs of improvement, but problems such as HIV/AIDS and the debt burden are constraining African economic growth. […] In AGOA [African Growth and Opportunity Act], Congress declared that free-trade agreements should be negotiated, where feasible, with interested sub-Saharan African countries. Related to this provision, negotiations on a free-trade agreement with the Southern African Customs Union, which includes South Africa and four other countries, began in June 2003. Several topics may be important to Congress in the oversight of AGOA and in potential legislation amending the act. These issues concern the expiration of the act, rules of origin provisions concerning textiles and apparel, the use of AGOA's benefits by more countries, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This product will be updated periodically."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Langton, Danielle

  2005-10-19
• Trade Negotiations During the 109th Congress [Updated August 3, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. [...] Potential agreements resulting from current trade negotiations may be considered by Congress under trade promotion authority (fast-track authority) legislation enacted in 2002. That legislation covers agreements signed before June 30, 2007. Under the legislation, if the President meets notification requirements and other conditions, Congress will consider a bill to implement a trade agreement under an expedited procedure (no amendment, deadlines for votes). The notification requirements include minimum 90-day notices before starting negotiations and before signing a trade agreement."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sek, Lenore; Fergusson, Ian F.

  2005-08-03
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Issues in the Debate on U.S. Participation [Updated June 9, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Questions of governance and power are among the issues at the heart of the debate on the WTO [World Trade Organization]. Major decisions in the WTO are made by member governments, who determine their negotiating positions, file dispute challenges, and implement their decisions. However, some challenge the claim that the WTO is democratic in nature by arguing that smaller countries are left out of the decision-making and that governments tend to represent large commercial interests only. On March 3, 2005, a World Trade Organization (WTO) Dispute Appeals Panel ruled against the United States in a dispute settlement case (DS267) brought by Brazil against certain aspects of the U.S. cotton program. The United States was given a July 1, 2005, deadline to bring certain cotton programs into compliance with WTO rules. On July 5, 2005, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Mike Johanns announced that the Administration was sending proposed statutory changes to Congress to comply with the WTO case including elimination of the Step 2 cotton program, removal of a 1% cap on fees charged under the GSM-102 export credit guarantee program, and termination of the GSM-103 export credit guarantee program. In light of USDA's proposed changes, and with the expectation that they will be fully implemented in an expeditious manner, Brazil has temporarily suspended its pursuit of WTO-sanctioned retaliatory trade measures against U.S. agricultural products. The U.S. National Cotton Council (NCC) has announced its opposition to the removal of the Step 2 cotton program. Modifications to or the elimination of the programs as suggested by USDA, ultimately will be decided by Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sek, Lenore; Fergusson, Ian F.

  2005-06-09
• High Performance Computers and Export Control Policy: Issues for Congress [Updated May 5, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Congress has a strong interest in export control policy and technologies that may have both commercial and military applications outside of the United States. Through its constitutionally delegated authority to regulate foreign commerce, it has the authority to control exports for national security or foreign policy purposes. The 107th Congress is closely examining issues of national export control policy, including reauthorization of the Export Administration Act (EAA), and control policies concerning key technologies...Congressional interest in HPCs has primarily, but not exclusively, been focused on the dual-use applications of HPCs...The 108th Congress likely will again consider the the reauthorization of the EAA...There are several issues that congressional policymakers are addressing concerning reauthorization of the Export Administration Act. One is proliferation-- who obtains this technology and how they use it. In response to concerns about proliferation, Congress legislated licensing, post-shipment verification and Congressional notification of exports and changes in licensing thresholds for HPCs. However, some contend that these safeguards and restrictions have not been effective. Another issue is the notification process, in which the executive branch not only notifies the legislative branch of HPC export control changes, but describes the national security implications as well...The U.S. computer industry has raised concerns about another issue-that restrictions only hurt U.S. commercial interests...Yet, there is no consensus as to what should replace MTOPS, if anything. Among the issues facing the 108th Congress are whether to maintain HPC export controls by using MTOPS, revise them by using a benchmark other than MTOPS, or completely eliminate controls in recognition of the worldwide availability of certain technology and rapid technological innovation." - From Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; McLoughlin, Glenn J.

  2005-05-05
• Transatlantic Regulatory Cooperation: Background and Analysis [Updated May 3, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Some contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The United States is participating in several regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, Morocco, and Singapore. Agreements have been signed with the five countries of the Central American Common Market (CACM) and the Dominican Republic, and with Bahrain. Negotiations are underway with the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), Panama, and Thailand. Talks with the Andean nations of Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador began in May 2004. Negotiations are expected to begin with the United Arab Emirates and Oman early in 2005. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sek, Lenore; Fergusson, Ian F.

  2005-05-03
• Doha Development Agenda: The WTO Framework Agreement [Updated February 10, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "On July 31, 2004, the 147 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) reached a Framework Agreement for conducting future Doha Round trade negotiations. The Framework Agreement is the latest step in the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations at the WTO, which was launched at the 4th Ministerial of the WTO at Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This report provides analysis of the framework agreement and its significant results (agriculture, industrial market access, services, and trade facilitation) in the context of U.S. objectives. The Framework addresses the three 'pillars' of agricultural trade liberalization identified in the 2001 Doha Ministerial Declaration: substantial reductions in trade-distorting domestic support; the phase-out, with a view to total elimination, of all export subsidies; and substantial improvements in market access. A crucial trade-off for the negotiations is the extent to which developed countries reduce their trade-distorting domestic support in return for additional market access from large developing countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Hanrahan, Charles; Cooper, William H., 1949- . . .

  2005-02-10
• Trade Negotiations During the 109th Congress [Updated January 19, 2005]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Some contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The United States is participating in several regional and bilateral trade negotiations. Agreements were concluded and became effective during the 108th Congress with Australia, Chile, Morocco, and Singapore. Agreements have been signed with the five countries of the Central American Common Market (CACM) and the Dominican Republic, and with Bahrain. Negotiations are underway with the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), Panama, and Thailand. Talks with the Andean nations of Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador began in May 2004. Negotiations are expected to begin with the United Arab Emirates and Oman early in 2005. Several other trade initiatives are under discussion, including a U.S.-Middle East FTA and an FTA with countries in southeast Asia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Sek, Lenore

  2005-01-19
• Trade Negotiations in the 108th Congress [Updated October 12, 2004]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy is designed to push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Some argue, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. The broadest trade initiative being negotiated during the 108th Congress is the multilateral trade negotiations in the World Trade Organization (WTO). In November 2001, trade ministers from 142 WTO member countries agreed to launch a new round of trade talks covering market access, WTO institutional rules, and developing-country issues. A framework agreement on future negotiations was concluded in Geneva on August 1, 2004, but a new deadline must be set for the talks. Another major initiative is the Free Trade Area of the Americas. In April 1998, 34 Western Hemisphere nations formally initiated negotiations on tariffs and nontariff trade barriers in the hemisphere. Negotiators have released drafts of an agreement-in-progress. Trade ministers met in Miami in November 2003 and announced a blueprint for negotiations, but the talks have now stalled."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Sek, Lenore

  2004-10-12
• Trade Negotiations in the 108th Congress [Updated March 26, 2004]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The broadest trade initiative being negotiated during the 108th Congress is the multilateral trade negotiations in the World Trade Organization (WTO). In November 2001, trade ministers from 142 WTO member countries agreed to launch a new round of trade talks covering market access, WTO institutional rules, and developing-country issues. A meeting of trade ministers at Cancún, Mexico in September 2003 ended without agreement on a negotiating framework and cast doubt on the January 1, 2005 deadline. [...] Two agreements -- FTAs [Fair Trade Agreement(s)] with Chile and with Singapore -- were concluded during the 108th Congress and are now in effect. An FTA with four countries of the Central American Common Market (CACM) was reached in December 2003, and a fifth country joined that agreement in January 2004. An agreement to integrate the Dominican Republic into this agreement was concluded in March 2004. Bilateral FTAs were concluded with Australia in February 2004 and with Morocco in March 2004. Negotiations are underway with the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). The Administration is also negotiating a bilateral FTA with Bahrain and plans to begin negotiations with Thailand and with Panama. The United States and Colombia announced that bilateral talks on an FTA would begin in May 2004, and these talks might include other Andean countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sek, Lenore; Fergusson, Ian F.

  2004-03-26