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World Trade Organization: The Non- Agricultural Market Access (NAMA) Negotiations [January 11, 2011]

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"Non-Agricultural Market Access (NAMA) in the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Doha Round has emerged as a major stumbling block in the seven-year Doha Round negotiations. NAMA refers to the cutting of tariff and non-tariff barriers (NTB) on industrial and primary products, basically all trade in goods which are not foodstuffs. While the agriculture negotiations have often overshadowed the NAMA talks, trade of industrial and primary products continues to make up the bulk of world trade. Average tariffs in developed countries have declined from 40% at the end of World War II to 6% today through successive rounds of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/WTO trade negotiations. Developed countries seek the reduction of continuing high tariffs in the developing world, particularly from such countries as Brazil, India, and China. Developing countries seek special and differential treatment and tie their cuts in industrial tariffs to reductions in agricultural tariffs and subsidies. Several econometric studies have modeled the possible effect of industrial tariff liberalization on the global economy. The studies vary based on the assumptions and data used. All but one found a greater net welfare benefit from liberalization of manufacturing tariffs than from agriculture. The studies indicate that developing countries in the aggregate would gain the most from manufacturing liberalization, at least in relative terms, and that the single largest gainer in terms of net welfare benefit would be China."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2011-01-11
Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement [January 10, 2011]

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"The economic and strategic architectures of Asia are evolving. One part of this evolving architecture is the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP), a free trade agreement that includes nations on both sides of the Pacific. The original TPP, an agreement among Brunei, Chile, New Zealand, and Singapore, came into effect in 2006. The United States, Australia, Peru, Malaysia, and Vietnam have committed themselves to joining and expanding this group. The fourth round of discussions among the nine countries took place in Auckland, New Zealand, during the week of December 6, 2010. Other architectures, such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the East Asia Summit (EAS) have both economic and strategic aspects. They can be grouped into two categories: (1) groupings that are Asia-centric in approach or origins and exclude the United States, and (2) those that are trans-Pacific in nature and that include, or would include, the United States and other Western Hemispheric nations. The TPP is one vehicle that could be used to shape the U.S. agenda with the region. The United States, by signaling its intention to join the EAS and by working to elevate its relationship with ASEAN to a more strategic level, appears to be shaping regional architectures in a way that will be more inclusive and trans-Pacific in nature."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-; Fergusson, Ian F.

2011-01-10
United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [September 2, 2010]

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"Canada is the largest single-country trading partner of the United States. In 2009, total merchandise trade with Canada consisted of $224.9 billion in imports and $204.7 billion in exports. In 2007, China displaced Canada as the largest source for U.S. imports for the first time, a trend that has continued since then. While Canada is an important trading partner for the United States, the United States is the dominant trade partner for Canada, and trade is a dominant feature of the Canadian economy. Automobiles and auto parts, a sector which has become highly integrated due to free trade, make up the largest sector of traded products. Canada is also the largest exporter of energy to the United States. Like the United States, the Canadian economy is affected by the transformation of China into an economic superpower. The United States and Canada also have significant stakes in each other's economy through foreign direct investment. Both countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and both are partners with Mexico in the NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement]. While most trade is conducted smoothly, several disputes remain contentious. Disputes concerning the 2006 softwood lumber agreement are under arbitration, and Canada has sought WTO consultations over country-of-origin-labeling requirements. In addition, the United States has placed Canada on its Special 301 priority watch list over intellectual property rights enforcement issues. Canada has also vigorously protested the implementation of the 'Buy American' provisions of the economic stimulus package. The terrorist attacks of 2001 focused attention on the U.S.-Canadian border. Several bilateral initiatives have been undertaken to minimize disruption to commerce from added border security. The focus on the border has renewed interest in some quarters in greater economic integration, either through incremental measures such as greater regulatory cooperation or potentially larger goals such as a customs or monetary union. Congressional interest has focused mostly on trade disputes, and also on the ability of the two nations to continue their traditional volume of trade with heightened security on the border."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2010-09-02
World Trade Organization (WTO): Issues in the Debate on Continued U.S. Participation (June 16, 2010)

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"Following World War II, the United States led efforts to establish an open and nondiscriminatory trading system with the expressed goal of raising the economic well-being of all countries and bolstering world peace. These efforts culminated in the creation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1948, a provisional agreement on tariffs and trade rules that governed world trade for 47 years. The World Trade Organization (WTO) succeeded the GATT in 1995 and today serves as a permanent body that administers the rules and agreements negotiated and signed by 153 participating parties, as well as a forum for dispute settlement and negotiations. Section 125 of the Uruguay Round Agreements (P.L. 103-465), which is the law that approved and implemented the agreements reached during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations, provided that the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) must submit to Congress every five years a report that analyzes the costs and benefits of continued U.S. participation in the WTO. The USTR submitted its report to Congress on March 1, 2010, triggering a 90 legislative day timetable in which any Member of Congress may introduce a privileged joint resolution withdrawing congressional approval of the WTO Agreement (to date no withdrawal resolution has been introduced in the 111th Congress)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Ahearn, Raymond J.; Fergusson, Ian F.

2010-06-16
Canada-U.S. Relations [May 4, 2010]

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"Relations between the United States and Canada, though generally close, have undergone changes in tenor over the past three decades. During the 1980s, the two countries generally enjoyed very good relations. The early 1990s brought new governments to Ottawa and Washington, and although Canada's Liberal Party emphasized its determination to act independently of the United States when necessary, relations continued to be cordial. In early 2006, a minority Conservative government assumed power in Ottawa. […]. The two North American countries continue to cooperate widely in international security and political issues, both bilaterally and through numerous international organizations. Canada's foreign and defense policies are usually in harmony with those of the United States. Areas of contention are relatively few, but sometimes sharp, as was the case in policy toward Iraq. Since September 11, the United States and Canada have cooperated extensively on efforts to strengthen border security and to combat terrorism, particularly in Afghanistan. [...].. This report begins with a short overview of Canada's political scene, its economic conditions, and its recent security and foreign policy, focusing particularly on issues that may be relevant to U.S. policymakers. This country survey is followed by several summaries of current bilateral issues in the political, international security, trade, and environmental arenas. The questions following each summary are designed as potential inquiries to Canadian officials to promote thought and discussion among policymakers."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; Ek, Carl

2010-05-04
United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [May 3, 2010]

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"The economies of the United States and Canada are highly integrated, a process that has been accelerated by the bilateral U.S.-Canada free trade agreement (FTA) of 1988 and the NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement] of 1994. Both are affluent industrialized economies, with similar standards of living and industrial structure. However, the two economies diverge in size, per capita income, productivity and net savings. [...] Both countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and both are partners with Mexico in the NAFTA. While most trade is conducted smoothly, several disputes remain contentious. Disputes concerning the 2006 softwood lumber agreement are under arbitration and Canada has sought WTO consultations over country-of-origin-labeling requirements. In addition, the United States has placed Canada on its Special 301 priority watch list over intellectual property rights enforcement issues. Canada has also vigorously protested the implementation of the 'Buy American' provisions of the economic stimulus package. The terrorist attacks of 2001 focused attention on the U.S.-Canadian border. Several bilateral initiatives have been undertaken to minimize disruption to commerce from added border security. The focus on the border has renewed interest in some quarters in greater economic integration, either through incremental measures such as greater regulatory cooperation or potentially larger goals such as a customs or monetary union. Congressional interest has focused mostly on trade disputes, and also on the ability of the two nations to continue their traditional volume of trade with heightened security on the border."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2010-05-03
Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement [June 25, 2010]

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"The economic and strategic architectures of Asia are evolving. One part of this evolving architecture is the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP), a free trade agreement that includes nations on both sides of the Pacific. The existing TPP, which originally came into effect in 2006, consists of Brunei, Chile, New Zealand, and Singapore. The United States, Australia, Peru, and Vietnam have committed themselves to joining and expanding this group. The second round of discussions among the eight countries took place in San Francisco, during the week of June 14, 2010. Other architectures, such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd's Asia-Pacific community initiative, and the East Asia Summit (EAS) have both economic and strategic aspects. They can be grouped into two categories: (1) groupings that are Asia-centric in approach and exclude the United States, and (2) those that are Trans-Pacific in nature and that include, or would include, the United States and other Western Hemispheric nations. The TPP is one vehicle that could be used to shape the U.S. agenda with the region."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-; Fergusson, Ian F.

2010-06-25
United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [May 13, 2009]

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"The United States and Canada conduct the world's largest bilateral trade relationship, with total merchandise trade (exports and imports) exceeding $596.9 billion in 2008. The U.S.-Canadian relationship revolves around the themes of integration and asymmetry: integration from successive trade liberalization from the U.S.-Canada Auto Pact of 1965 leading to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and asymmetry resulting from Canadian dependence on the U.S. market and from the disparate size of the two economies. […].The terrorist attacks of 2001 focused attention on the U.S.-Canadian border. Several bilateral initiatives have been undertaken to minimize disruption to commerce from added border security. The focus on the border has renewed interest in some quarters in greater economic integration, either through incremental measures such as greater regulatory cooperation or potentially larger goals such as a customs or monetary union. Congressional interest has focused mostly on trade disputes, and also on the ability of the two nations to continue their traditional volume of trade with heightened security on the border. This report will be updated periodically."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2009-05-13
Export Administration Act: Evolution, Provisions, and Debate [Updated May 5, 2005]

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"The 109th Congress again may consider legislation to rewrite or to reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). In the 108th Congress, H.R. 55 was introduced on January 7, 2003, yet no action was taken on the proposed legislation. Through the EAA, Congress delegates to the executive branch its express constitutional authority to regulate foreign commerce by controlling exports. The EAA provides the statutory authority for export controls on sensitive dual-use goods and technologies: items that have both civilian and military applications, including those items that can contribute to the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical weaponry. The EAA, which originally expired in 1989, periodically has been reauthorized for short periods of time, with the last incremental extension expiring in August 2001. At other times and currently, the export licensing system created under the authority of EAA has been continued by the invocation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). EAA confers upon the President the power to control exports for national security, foreign policy or short supply purposes. It also authorizes the President to establish export licensing mechanisms for items detailed on the Commerce Control List (CCL), and it provides some guidance and places certain limits on that authority. The CCL currently provides detailed specifications for about 2,400 dual-use items including equipment, materials, software, and technology (including data and know-how) likely requiring some type of export license from the Commerce Departments Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS). BIS administers the Export Administration Regulations (EAR), which, in addition to the CCL, describe licensing policy and procedures such as commodity classification, license applications, and interagency dispute resolution procedures. In the absence of a currently authorized EAA, the EAR is maintained under IEEPA authority."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2003-05-05
High Performance Computers and Export Control Policy: Issues for Congress [Updated May 5, 2005]

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"Congress has a strong interest in export control policy and technologies that may have both commercial and military applications outside of the United States. Through its constitutionally delegated authority to regulate foreign commerce, it has the authority to control exports for national security or foreign policy purposes. The 107th Congress is closely examining issues of national export control policy, including reauthorization of the Export Administration Act (EAA), and control policies concerning key technologies...Congressional interest in HPCs has primarily, but not exclusively, been focused on the dual-use applications of HPCs...The 108th Congress likely will again consider the the reauthorization of the EAA...There are several issues that congressional policymakers are addressing concerning reauthorization of the Export Administration Act. One is proliferation-- who obtains this technology and how they use it. In response to concerns about proliferation, Congress legislated licensing, post-shipment verification and Congressional notification of exports and changes in licensing thresholds for HPCs. However, some contend that these safeguards and restrictions have not been effective. Another issue is the notification process, in which the executive branch not only notifies the legislative branch of HPC export control changes, but describes the national security implications as well...The U.S. computer industry has raised concerns about another issue-that restrictions only hurt U.S. commercial interests...Yet, there is no consensus as to what should replace MTOPS, if anything. Among the issues facing the 108th Congress are whether to maintain HPC export controls by using MTOPS, revise them by using a benchmark other than MTOPS, or completely eliminate controls in recognition of the worldwide availability of certain technology and rapid technological innovation." - From Summary

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; McLoughlin, Glenn J.

2005-05-05
Export Administration Act: Evolution, Provisions, and Debate [Updated January 15, 2009]

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"This report discusses the Export Administration Act in terms of its evolution in the 20th century, its major features including the types of controls authorized by the act, the Commerce Control List and export licensing procedures, and issues concerning the maintenance of export controls under IEEPA. It then highlights several controlled commodities that have been featured prominently in export control discussions. Finally, it discusses competing business and national security perspectives concerning several of more contentious themes in the export control debate: the controllability of technology, the effectiveness of multilateral control regimes, the organization of the export control system, and the impact of export controls on the U.S. economy and business."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2009-01-15
Trade Negotiations During the 109th Congress [Updated August 3, 2005]

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"The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as 'competitive liberalization.' This strategy, it argues, will push forward trade liberalization simultaneously on bilateral, regional and multilateral fronts. It is meant to spur trade negotiations by liberalizing trade with countries willing to join FTAs, and to pressure other countries to negotiate multilaterally. Critics contend, however, that the accent on regional and bilateral negotiations undermines the multilateral forum and increases the risk of trade diversion away from competitive countries not in the trade bloc. [...] Potential agreements resulting from current trade negotiations may be considered by Congress under trade promotion authority (fast-track authority) legislation enacted in 2002. That legislation covers agreements signed before June 30, 2007. Under the legislation, if the President meets notification requirements and other conditions, Congress will consider a bill to implement a trade agreement under an expedited procedure (no amendment, deadlines for votes). The notification requirements include minimum 90-day notices before starting negotiations and before signing a trade agreement."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sek, Lenore; Fergusson, Ian F.

2005-08-03
High Performance Computers and Export Control Policy: Issues for Congress [Updated January 25, 2006]

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"Congress has a strong interest in export control policy and technologies that may have both commercial and military applications outside of the United States. Through its constitutionally delegated authority to regulate foreign commerce, it has the authority to control exports for national security or foreign policy purposes. The 107th Congress is closely examining issues of national export control policy, including reauthorization of the Export Administration Act (EAA), and control policies concerning key technologies...Congressional interest in HPCs has primarily, but not exclusively, been focused on the dual-use applications of HPCs...The 108th Congress likely will again consider the reauthorization of the EAA...There are several issues that congressional policymakers are addressing concerning reauthorization of the Export Administration Act. One is proliferation-- who obtains this technology and how they use it. In response to concerns about proliferation, Congress legislated licensing, post-shipment verification and Congressional notification of exports and changes in licensing thresholds for HPCs. However, some contend that these safeguards and restrictions have not been effective. Another issue is the notification process, in which the executive branch not only notifies the legislative branch of HPC export control changes, but describes the national security implications as well...The U.S. computer industry has raised concerns about another issue-that restrictions only hurt U.S. commercial interests...Yet, there is no consensus as to what should replace MTOPS, if anything. Among the issues facing the 108th Congress are whether to maintain HPC export controls by using MTOPS, revise them by using a benchmark other than MTOPS, or completely eliminate controls in recognition of the worldwide availability of certain technology and rapid technological innovation." - From Summary

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; McLoughlin, Glenn J.

2006-01-25
United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [Updated May 10, 2008]

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"The U.S.-Canadian relationship revolves around the themes of integration and asymmetry: integration from successive trade liberalization from the U.S.- Canada Auto Pact of 1965 leading to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and asymmetry resulting from Canadian dependence on the U.S. market and from the disparate size of the two economies. The economies of the United States and Canada are highly integrated, a process that has been accelerated by the bilateral U.S.-Canada free trade agreement (FTA) of 1988 and the NAFTA of 1994. Both are affluent industrialized economies, with similar standards of living and industrial structure. [...]. The United States and Canada also have significant stakes in each other's economy through foreign direct investment. Both countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and both are partners with Mexico in the NAFTA. While most trade is conducted smoothly, several disputes remain contentious. [...]. The terrorist attacks of 2001 focused attention on the U.S.-Canadian border. Several bilateral initiatives have been undertaken to minimize disruption to commerce from added border security. The focus on the border has renewed interest in some quarters in greater economic integration, either through incremental measures such as greater regulatory cooperation or potentially larger goals such as a customs or monetary union. Congressional interest has focused on these disputes, and also on the ability of the two nations to continue their traditional volume of trade with heightened security on the border."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2008-05-10
Export Administration Act of 1979 Reauthorization [Updated January 2, 2003]

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"In debates on export administration legislation, parties often fall into two camps: those who primarily want to liberalize controls in order to promote exports, and those who are apprehensive that liberalization may compromise national security goals. While it is widely agreed that exports of some goods and technologies can adversely affect U.S. national security and foreign policy, many believe that current export controls are detrimental to U.S. business, that the resultant loss of competitiveness, market share, and jobs can harm the U.S. economy, and that the harm to particular U.S. industries and to the economy itself can negatively impact U.S. security. Controversies arise with regard to the cost to the U.S. economy, the licensing system, foreign availability of controlled items, and unilateral controls as opposed to multilateral regimes. In the last few years, congressional attention has focused on high-performance computers, encryption, stealth technology, precision machine tools, satellites, and aerospace technology. Congress has several options in addressing export administration policy, ranging from approving no new legislation to rewriting the entire Export Administration Act. Among the options presented in this report are: allow the President to continue export controls under emergency authority, restore the EAA 1979 with increased penalties, or, rewrite the Export Administration Act to account for changing national security concerns and a globalized economy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Grimmett, Jeanne J.; Fergusson, Ian F.; Elwell, Craig Kent, 1947-

2003-01-02
Export Administration Act: Controversy and Prospects [Updated January 2, 2003]

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"The 108th Congress again is expected to consider legislation to rewrite or to reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). In the 107th Congress, the Export Administration Act of 2001 (S. 149) was introduced on January 23, 2001. The Senate passed S. 149 on September 6, 2001 by a vote of 85-14. A companion version in the House, H.R. 2581, was introduced by Rep. Gilman on July 20, 2001. The House International Relations Committee reported the measure with 35 amendments on August 1. The House Armed Services Committee further amended H.R. 2581 and reported out the bill on March 6, 2002. The difficulty in passing a comprehensive rewrite of the EAA has resulted, in part, from the continuing tension between national security and commercial concerns. Industry groups, proponents of heightened export controls, the Administration, and Congress have all participated in the reauthorization debate."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2003-01-02
WTO, Intellectual Property Rights, and the Access to Medicines Controversy [Updated November 5, 2003]

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The most visible issue concerning intellectual property rights confronting World Trade Organization negotiators is the ability of developing and least developed countries to access medicines to fight public health epidemics such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and other infectious diseases within the context of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) Agreement. The Agreement will allow poor developing countries to issue a compulsory license to a third-country producer to manufacture generic drugs at an affordable price. The accord reflects contentious issues in the negotiations including the scope of diseases, country eligibility, and diversion safeguards. Some have questioned the economic utility of issuing compulsory licenses. This report will be updated as necessary.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2003-11-05
High Performance Computers and Export Control Policy: Issues for Congress [Updated February 10, 2003]

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"Congress has a strong interest in export control policy and technologies that may have both commercial and military applications outside of the United States. Through its constitutionally delegated authority to regulate foreign commerce, it has the authority to control exports for national security or foreign policy purposes. The 107th Congress is closely examining issues of national export control policy, including reauthorization of the Export Administration Act (EAA), and control policies concerning key technologies...Congressional interest in HPCs has primarily, but not exclusively, been focused on the dual-use applications of HPCs...The 108th Congress likely will again consider the the reauthorization of the EAA...There are several issues that congressional policymakers are addressing concerning reauthorization of the Export Administration Act. One is proliferation-- who obtains this technology and how they use it. In response to concerns about proliferation, Congress legislated licensing, post-shipment verification and Congressional notification of exports and changes in licensing thresholds for HPCs. However, some contend that these safeguards and restrictions have not been effective. Another issue is the notification process, in which the executive branch not only notifies the legislative branch of HPC export control changes, but describes the national security implications as well...The U.S. computer industry has raised concerns about another issue-that restrictions only hurt U.S. commercial interests...Yet, there is no consensus as to what should replace MTOPS, if anything. Among the issues facing the 108th Congress are whether to maintain HPC export controls by using MTOPS, revise them by using a benchmark other than MTOPS, or completely eliminate controls in recognition of the worldwide availability of certain technology and rapid technological innovation." - From Summary

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; McLoughlin, Glenn J.

2003-02-10
Export Administration Act: Evolution, Provisions, and Debate [April 1, 2003]

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"The 108th Congress may consider legislation to rewrite or to reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). H.R. 55 was introduced on January 7, 2003. Through the EAA, Congress delegates to the executive branch its express constitutional authority to regulate foreign commerce. The EAA provides the statutory authority for export controls on sensitive dual-use goods and technologies: items that have both civilian and military applications, including those items that can contribute to the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical weaponry... EAA confers upon the President the power to control exports for national security, foreign policy or short supply purposes. It also authorizes the President to establish export licensing mechanisms for items detailed on the Commerce Control List (CCL), and it provides some guidance and places certain limits on that authority...In debates on export administration legislation, parties often fall into two camps: those who primarily want to liberalize controls in order to promote exports, and those who believe that liberalization may compromise national security goals. While it is widely agreed that exports of some goods and technologies can adversely affect U.S. national security and foreign policy, some believe that current export controls can be detrimental to U.S. businesses and to the U.S. economy...Others believe that security concerns must be paramount in the U.S. export control system and that export controls can be an effective method to thwart proliferators, terrorist states, and countries that can threaten U.S. national security interests. Controversies have arisen with regard to particular exports such as high performance computers, encryption technology, stealth materials, satellites, machine tools, "hot-section" aerospace technology, and the issue of "deemed exports."" - Excepts from Summary

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2003-04-01
Boosting U.S. Exports: Selected Issues for Congress [July 21, 2011]

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"For many years, the U.S. government has played an active role in promoting U.S. commercial exports of goods and services by administering various forms of export assistance through federal government agencies. Congress has had a long-standing interest in the effectiveness and efficiency of federal export promotion activities and may exercise export promotion authority in a number of ways, including through oversight, authorization, and funding roles. […] Thus, it is argued that efforts to ensure foreign compliance with existing trade agreements and the negotiation of new FTAs [Free Trade Agreements] should be part of a strategy to boost U.S. exports. Others argue that more can be done to address U.S. barriers to exports, such as U.S. export controls on dual-use products, which some contend may be too restrictive and may put U.S. exporters at a disadvantage vis-à-vis foreign competitors. Finally, many argue that greater efforts should be made to induce countries with high savings and relatively low consumption and that are heavily dependent on exporting for their economic growth to implement policies that would make private consumption the engine of future economic growth, which would enhance their demand for U.S. goods and services. The NEI [National Export Initiative] also has drawn greater attention to whether the trade policy structure and organization of the federal government is suited to boosting U.S. exports and supporting U.S. jobs effectively and efficiently."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Villarreal, M. Angeles; Morrison, Wayne M.; Fergusson, Ian F. . . .

2011-07-21
World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [December 12, 2011]

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"The WTO [World Trade Organization] Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations, begun in November 2001, has entered its 11th year. The negotiations have been characterized by persistent differences among the United States, the European Union, and developing countries on major issues, such as agriculture, industrial tariffs and non-tariff barriers, services, and trade remedies. Partly as a result of being labeled a development round to entice developing countries to participate in the first place, developing countries (including emerging economic powerhouses such as China, Brazil, and India) have sought the reduction of agriculture tariffs and subsidies among developed countries, non-reciprocal market access for manufacturing sectors, and protection for their services industries. The United States, the European Union, and other developed countries have sought increased access to developing countries' industrial and services sectors while attempting to retain some measure of protection for their agricultural sectors. Given the differences, there is frustration over the ability of WTO member states to reach a comprehensive agreement. […] In addition, Members of Congress likely will carefully scrutinize any agreement that may require changes to U.S. trade remedy laws. Several issues are among the most important to developing countries, in addition to concessions on agriculture. One issue, now resolved, pertained to compulsory licensing of medicines and patent protection. Trade facilitation, which aims to improve the efficiency of international trade by harmonizing and streamlining customs procedures, has received strong support from developed and developing countries. A third issue deals with a review of provisions giving special and differential treatment to developing countries along with problems that developing countries are having in implementing current trade obligations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2011-12-12
Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations and Issues for Congress [September 5, 2012]

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"The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a proposed regional free trade agreement (FTA) being negotiated among the United States, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. U.S. negotiators and others describe and envision the TPP as a 'comprehensive and high-standard' FTA, presumably because they hope it will liberalize trade in nearly all goods and services and include commitments beyond those currently established in the World Trade Organization (WTO). The broad outline of an agreement was announced on the sidelines of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) ministerial in November 2011 in Honolulu, Hawaii. If implemented, the TPP potentially could eliminate tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade and investment among the parties and could serve as a template for a future trade pact among APEC members and potentially other countries. Congress has a direct interest in the negotiations, both through influencing U.S. negotiating positions with the executive branch, and by passing legislation to implement any resulting agreement."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jurenas, Remy

2012-09-05
World Trade Organization: Background and Issues [May 9, 2007]

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"The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, under an agreement reached during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. The Uruguay Round was the last of a series of periodic trade negotiations held under the auspices of the WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). […] Assisting the members is a WTO Secretariat that numbers about 594 and is located in Geneva, Switzerland. The top official of the Secretariat is Director- General Pascal Lamy of France, whose three-year term began on September 1, 2005. Trade agreements administered by the WTO cover a broad range of goods and services trade and apply to virtually all government practices that directly relate to trade, for example tariffs, subsidies, government procurement, and trade-related intellectual property rights. The WTO agreements are based on the principle of nondiscriminatory treatment among countries. Some exceptions however, such as preferential treatment for developing countries, are allowed. Other basic principles of the WTO are open information on rules and regulations, negotiated limits on trade barriers, and settlement of disputes under specific procedures. The 110th Congress may examine the relationship between the United States and the WTO in two ways. Congress may consider implementing legislation for a potential Doha Round agreement. An agreement will not be reached prior to the expiration of U.S. Trade Promotion Authority (TPA); however, Congress may extend or reauthorize TPA to consider such an agreement. Secondly, Congress may consider changes to U.S. laws in response to WTO dispute settlement procedures."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2007-05-09
World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated May 8, 2007]

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"The World Trade Organization's (WTO) Doha Development Round of multilateral trade negotiations was suspended in July 2006 after key negotiating groups failed to break a deadlock on agricultural tariffs and subsidies. On January 31, 2007, Lamy announced the talks were back in 'full negotiating mode,' however formal negotiating sessions have not resumed in Geneva. The negotiations, which were launched at the 4th WTO Ministerial in 2001 at Doha, Qatar, have been characterized by persistent differences between the United States, the European Union, and developing countries on major issues, such as agriculture, industrial tariffs and non-tariff barriers, services, and trade remedies. Depending on the outcome, some U.S. industries may gain access to foreign markets, and others may see increased competition from imports. Likewise, some U.S. workers may be helped through increased access to foreign markets, but others may be hurt by import competition. […] Congress may also consider legislation to amend U.S. patent law to implement the TRIPS access to medicine decision, one of the few achievement of the round to date. In addition, Members of Congress may carefully scrutinize any agreement that may require changes to U.S. trade remedy laws. Three issues are among the most important to developing countries, in addition to concessions on agriculture. One issue, now resolved, pertained to compulsory licensing of medicines and patent protection. A second deals with a review of provisions giving special and differential treatment to developing countries. A third addresses problems that developing countries are having in implementing current trade obligations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2007-05-08
United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [January 29, 2008]

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"The United States and Canada conduct the world's largest bilateral trade relationship, with total merchandise trade (exports and imports) exceeding $533.7 billion in 2006. The U.S.-Canadian relationship revolves around the themes of integration and asymmetry: integration from successive trade liberalization from the U.S.- Canada Auto Pact of 1965 leading to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and asymmetry resulting from Canadian dependence on the U.S. market and from the disparate size of the two economies. The economies of the United States and Canada are highly integrated, a process that has been accelerated by the bilateral U.S.-Canada free trade agreement (FTA) of 1988 and the NAFTA of 1994. Both are affluent industrialized economies, with similar standards of living and industrial structure. However, the two economies diverge in size, per capita income, productivity and net savings. […] The terrorist attacks of 2001 focused attention on the U.S.-Canadian border. Several bilateral initiatives have been undertaken to minimize disruption to commerce from added border security. The focus on the border has renewed interest in some quarters in greater economic integration, either through incremental measures such as greater regulatory cooperation or potentially larger goals such as a customs or monetary union. Congressional interest has focused on these disputes, and also on the ability of the two nations to continue their traditional volume of trade with heightened security on the border. This report will be updated periodically."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2008-01-29
Intellectual Property Rights and International Trade [February 17, 2011]

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"This report provides background on intellectual property rights (IPR) and discusses the role of U.S. international trade policy in enhancing IPR protection and enforcement abroad. IPR are legal rights granted by governments to encourage innovation and creative output by ensuring that creators reap the benefits of their inventions or works, and they may take the form of patents, trade secrets, copyrights, trademarks, or geographical indications. U.S. industries that rely on IPR contribute significantly to U.S. economic growth, employment, and trade with other countries. Counterfeiting and piracy in other countries may result in the loss of billions of dollars of revenue for U.S. firms as well as the loss of U.S. jobs. Responsibility for developing IPR policy, engaging in IPR-related international negotiations, and enforcing IPR laws cuts across several different U.S. government agencies. Promoting the enforcement of IPR is an important component of U.S. international trade policy. Since the 1995 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) at the World Trade Organization (WTO), trade policy has been used to promote enforcement of IPR abroad. The United States and several trading partners have been negotiating the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA), which would surpass TRIPS Agreement commitments."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Fergusson, Ian F.

2011-02-17
Canada-U.S. Relations [September 13, 2011]

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"Many Members of Congress follow U.S.-Canada environmental, trade, and transborder issues that affect their states and districts. In addition, because the countries are similar in many ways, lawmakers in both countries study solutions proposed across the border to such issues as federal fiscal policy and federal-provincial power sharing. This report begins with a short overview of Canada's political scene, economic conditions, security and foreign policy, and environmental initiatives, focusing particularly on issues that may be relevant to U.S. policymakers. This country survey is followed by several summaries of current bilateral issues in the political, international security, trade, and environmental arenas. The questions following each summary are designed as potential inquiries to Canadian officials to promote thought and discussion among policymakers."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Ek, Carl; Fergusson, Ian F.

2011-09-13
Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations and Issues for Congress [March 19, 2013]

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"The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a proposed regional free trade agreement (FTA) being negotiated among the United States, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. On March 15, 2013, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that Japan would seek to participate in the TPP negotiations. [...] The 16th round of negotiations concluded in Singapore on March 14, 2013, and the 17th round is scheduled to be held in Lima, Peru in May 2013. The current goal is to reach an agreement in time for the October 2013 APEC summit in Indonesia. For this deadline to be achieved, outstanding negotiating positions may need to be tabled soon in order for political decisions to be made. [...] As the negotiations proceed, a number of issues important to Congress are emerging. One is whether the United States can balance its vision of creating a 'comprehensive and high standard' agreement with a large and expanding group of countries, while not insisting on terms that other countries will reject. Another issue is how Congress will consider the TPP, if concluded. The present negotiations are not being conducted under the auspices of formal trade promotion authority (TPA)--the latest TPA expired on July 1, 2007--although the Administration informally is following the procedures of the former TPA. If TPP implementing legislation is brought to Congress, TPA may need to be considered if the legislation is not to be subject to potentially debilitating amendments or rejection. Finally, Congress may seek to weigh in on the addition of new members to the negotiations, before or after the negotiations conclude."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jurenas, Remy . . .

2013-03-19
Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement [December 12, 2011]

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"At the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) in November 2011, the leaders of the United States, Australia, Brunei, Chile, Malaysia, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam announced the broad outlines of a Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) agreement, which the parties hope to complete in 2012. If enacted the TPP would eliminate 11,000 tariff lines among the parties and, with 26 chapters under negotiation, potentially it could serve as a template for future trade pact among the APEC states. At the same venue the leaders of Japan, Canada, and Mexico announced that they would seek consultations with partner countries with a view towards joining the negotiations. Nine rounds of negotiations have occurred since the beginning of 2010. Other architectures, such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the East Asia Summit (EAS) have both economic and strategic aspects. They can be grouped into two categories: (1) groupings that are Asia-centric in approach or origins and exclude the United States and (2) those that are trans-Pacific in nature and that include, or would include, the United States and other Western Hemispheric nations. The TPP is one vehicle that could be used to shape the U.S. agenda with the region. The United States, by signaling its intention to join the EAS and by working to elevate its relationship with ASEAN to a more strategic level, appears to be shaping regional architectures in a way that will be more inclusive and trans-Pacific in nature."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.; Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

2011-12-12
Boosting U.S. Exports: Selected Issues for Congress [November 29, 2011]

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"For many years, the U.S. government has played an active role in promoting U.S. commercial exports of goods and services by administering various forms of export assistance through federal government agencies. Congress has had a long-standing interest in the effectiveness and efficiency of federal export promotion activities and may exercise export promotion authority in a number of ways, including through oversight, authorization, and funding roles. The recent global economic downturn has renewed congressional interest in U.S. government efforts to expand U.S. exports levels. In addition, in 2010, President Obama introduced a National Export Initiative (NEI), a strategy for doubling U.S. exports by 2015 to generate U.S. jobs. The NEI's key components are to (1) improve advocacy and trade promotion efforts on behalf of U.S. exporters; (2) increase access to export financing; (3) reinforce efforts to remove barriers to trade, such as through free trade agreements (FTAs); (4) enforce trade rules; and (5) pursue policies to promote strong, sustainable, and balanced global economic growth. The NEI also contains a focus on expanding specific U.S. exports, such as exports from small businesses. The growing interest in federal export promotion raises a number of issues for the 112th Congress. One debate involves export promotion definitions. Based on varying views, activities that constitute export promotion can range from direct forms of export assistance (such as commercial advocacy or export financing) to broader forms (such as negotiating FTAs). Although the main goal of export promotion policy generally is to boost U.S. exports, policymakers may use export promotion to advance other goals, such as macroeconomic, economic sector-specific, or international trade policy goals, and may differ on how to prioritize such goals."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Fergusson, Ian F.; Morrison, Wayne M.

2011-11-29

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