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World Trade Organization: Overview and Future Direction [Updated October 2, 2019]
From the Introduction: "The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that administers the trade rules and agreements negotiated by its 164 members to eliminate trade barriers and create nondiscriminatory rules to govern trade. It also serves as an important forum for resolving trade disputes. [...] With growing debate over the role and future direction of the WTO, a number of issues may be of interest to Congress, including the value of U.S. membership and leadership in the WTO, whether new U.S. negotiating objectives or oversight hearings are needed to address prospects for new WTO reforms and rulemaking, and the relevant authorities and the impact of potential WTO withdrawal on U.S. economic and foreign policy interests. This report provides background history of the WTO, its organization, and current status of negotiations. The report also explores concerns some have regarding the WTO's future direction and key policy issues for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cimino-Isaacs, Cathleen D.; Fergusson, Ian F.; Fefer, Rachel F.
2019-10-02
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World Trade Organization [Updated October 1, 2019]
From the Overview: "The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, following the ratification of the Uruguay Round Agreements and today includes 164 members. [...] The WTO has three basic functions: (1) administers existing agreements; (2) serves as a negotiating forum for new trade liberalization; and (3) provides a mechanism to settle trade disputes among the parties. The multiple WTO Agreements cover trade in goods, services, and agriculture; remove tariff and nontariff barriers; and establish rules on government practices that directly relate to trade--for example, trade remedies, technical barriers to trade, customs valuation, intellectual property rights, and government procurement. The Agreements are based on the principles of nondiscrimination among countries, national treatment, and transparency of trade rules and regulations. Some exceptions, however, such as preferential treatment for developing countries and regional and bilateral free trade agreements, are allowed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Fefer, Rachel F.
2019-10-01
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [January 30, 2018]
"In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--a chief goal of President Obama's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the EAA [The Export Administration Act] or enacting replacement legislation. In doing so, Congress may debate the record of the present dual-use system maintained by emergency authority, the aims and effectiveness of the present nonproliferation control regimes, the maintenance of the defense industrial base, and the balance between maintaining economic competitiveness and preserving national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2018-01-30
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [October 18, 2012]
"Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. […] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--the end result of the President's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the present EAA or writing new legislation. In doing so, Congress may debate the record of the present dual-use system maintained by emergency authority, the aims and effectiveness of the present non-proliferation control regimes, the maintenance of the defense industrial base, and the delicate balance between the maintenance of economic competitiveness and the preservation of national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2012-10-18
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [May 7, 2013]
"The 113th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. The U.S. export control system is diffused among several different licensing and enforcement agencies. Exports of dual-use goods and technologies--as well as some military items, are licensed by the Department of Commerce--munitions are licensed by the Department of State, and restrictions on exports based on U.S. sanctions are administered by the U.S. Treasury. Administrative enforcement of export controls is conducted by these agencies, while criminal enforcement is carried out by the Department of Commerce, units of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and by the Department of Justice (DOJ)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.
2013-05-07
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [April 19, 2013]
"The 113th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. […] Aspects of the U.S. export control system have long been criticized by exporters, nonproliferation advocates, and other stakeholders as being too rigorous, insufficiently rigorous, cumbersome, obsolete, inefficient, or any combination of these descriptions. In August 2009, the Obama Administration launched a comprehensive review of the U.S. export control system. In April 2010, Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates proposed an outline of a new system based on four singularities: [1] a single export control licensing agency for both dual-use and munitions exports, [2] a unified control list, [3] a single enforcement coordination agency, and [4] a single integrated information technology (IT) system."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2013-04-19
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [January 13, 2014]
"The 113th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology -- items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. The U.S. export control system is diffused among several different licensing and enforcement agencies. […] Administrative enforcement of export controls is conducted by these agencies, while criminal enforcement is carried out by the Department of Commerce, units of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and by the Department of Justice (DOJ). Aspects of the U.S. export control system have long been criticized by exporters, nonproliferation advocates, allies, and other stakeholders as being too rigorous, insufficiently rigorous, cumbersome, obsolete, inefficient, or any combination of these descriptions. In August 2009, the Obama Administration launched a comprehensive review of the U.S. export control system."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2014-01-13
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [July 14, 2011]
"The 112th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. The U.S. export control system is diffused among several different licensing and enforcement agencies. Exports of dual-use goods and technologies are licensed by the Department of Commerce, munitions are licensed by the Department of State, and restrictions on exports based on U.S. sanctions are administered by the U.S. Treasury. Enforcement of export controls is conducted by these agencies as well as by units of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ). […] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--the end result of the President's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the present EAA or writing new legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2011-07-14
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [February 16, 2012]
"The 112th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology-items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. The U.S. export control system is diffused among several different licensing and enforcement agencies. Exports of dual-use goods and technologies are licensed by the Department of Commerce, munitions are licensed by the Department of State, and restrictions on exports based on U.S. sanctions are administered by the U.S. Treasury. Enforcement of export controls is
conducted by these agencies as well as by units of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.; Fergusson, Ian F.
2012-02-16
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [September 20, 2013]
"The 113th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. […] Aspects of the U.S. export control system have long been criticized by exporters, nonproliferation advocates, allies, and other stakeholders as being too rigorous, insufficiently rigorous, cumbersome, obsolete, inefficient, or any combination of these descriptions. In August 2009, the Obama Administration launched a comprehensive review of the U.S. export control system. In April 2010, Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates proposed an outline of a new system based on four singularities: (1) a single export control licensing agency for dual-use, munitions exports, and Treasury-administered embargoes. (2) a unified control list, (3) a single primary enforcement coordination agency, and (4) a single integrated information technology (IT) system."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2013-09-20
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [January 11, 2013]
"The 113th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. The U.S. export control system is diffused among several different licensing and enforcement agencies. Exports of dual-use goods and technologies are licensed by the Department of Commerce, munitions are licensed by the Department of State, and restrictions on exports based on U.S. sanctions are administered by the U.S. Treasury. Enforcement of export controls is conducted by these agencies as well as by units of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2013-01-11
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [May 22, 2018]
"Difficulty with striking an appropriate balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense articles; dual-use goods and technology; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. The Export Administration Act (EAA) legislated dual-use controls, but it has expired and such controls are presently maintained under IEEPA authorities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2018-05-22
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [October 30, 2018]
"Difficulty with striking an appropriate balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the Export Controls Act of 2018 (ECA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense articles; dual-use goods and technology; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. The ECA legislates dual-use controls."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2018-10-30
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [August 9, 2018]
"Difficulty with striking an appropriate balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense articles; dual-use goods and technology; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. The Export Administration Act (EAA) legislated dual-use controls, but it has expired and such controls are presently maintained under IEEPA authorities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2018-08-09
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [January 8, 2018]
"Difficulty with striking an appropriate balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; dual-use goods and technology; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. The Export Administration Act (EAA) legislated dual-use controls, but it has expired and such controls are presently maintained under IEEPA authorities. [...] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--a chief goal of President Obama's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the EAA or enacting replacement legislation. In doing so, Congress may debate the record of the present dual-use system maintained by emergency authority, the aims and effectiveness of the present non-proliferation control regimes, the maintenance of the defense industrial base, and the balance between maintaining economic competitiveness and preserving national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2018-01-08
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TPP Countries Conclude Agreement Without U.S. Participation [January 29, 2018]
"On November 11, 2017, the 11 remaining signatories of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) agreement, excluding the United States, announced the outlines of the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). On January 23, 2018, the parties announced they had concluded negotiations on the CPTPP and plan to sign the pact in early March. The CPTPP would be a vehicle to enact much of the TPP, signed by these countries and the United States in February 2016 from which President Trump withdrew in January 2017. The withdrawal was the first action under the President's new trade policy approach, which includes a stated preference for bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) negotiations over multiparty agreements like TPP, a critical view of many existing U.S. FTAs, and a prominent focus on bilateral U.S. trade deficits as an indicator of the health of trade relationships. The Trump Administration has also been engaged, since August 2017, in a renegotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Canada and Mexico, two TPP signatories and CPTPP participants. On January 5, 2018, the Administration began official talks with South Korea on potential modifications to the U.S.-South Korea FTA (KORUS)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Williams, Brock R.
2018-01-29
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Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) [Updated June 21, 2019]
From the Overview: "The Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), previously known as 'Fast-Track Authority,' is the time-limited authority that Congress uses to set trade negotiating objectives, to establish notification and consultation requirements, and to consider implementing legislation for certain reciprocal trade agreements under expedited procedures, provided that they meet certain statutory requirements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.
2019-06-21
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International Emergency Economic Powers Act: Origins, Evolution, and Use [March 20, 2019]
From the Document: "The International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) provides the President broad authority to regulate a variety of economic transactions following a declaration of national emergency. IEEPA, like the Trading with the Enemy Act (TWEA) from which it branched, sits at the center of the modern U.S. sanctions regime. Changes in the use of IEEPA powers since the act's enactment in 1977 have caused some to question whether the statute's oversight provisions are robust enough given the sweeping economic powers it confers upon the President upon declaration of a state of emergency."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Casey, Christopher A.; Fergusson, Ian F.; Rennack, Dianne E. . . .
2019-03-20
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [Updated April 5, 2019]
From the Document: "Difficulty with striking an appropriate balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the Export Controls Act of 2018 (ECA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense articles; dual-use goods and technology; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. The ECA legislates dual-use controls."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.; Fergusson, Ian F.
2019-04-05
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Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and International Trade [Updated March 13, 2019]
From the Document: "What is intellectual property (IP), and how is it protected? IP is a creation of the mind embodied in physical and digital objects. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal, private, enforceable rights that governments grant to inventors and artists. IPR generally provide timelimited monopolies to right holders to use, commercialize, and market their creations and to prevent others from doing the same without their permission (acts referred to as infringements). IPR are intended to encourage innovation and creative output. After these rights expire, other inventors, artists, and society at large can build on them."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Fergusson, Ian F.
2019-03-13
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World Trade Organization [Updated March 7, 2019]
From the Document: "The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, following the ratification of the Uruguay Round Agreements and today includes 164 members. It succeeded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in 1947 as part of the post-WWII effort to build a stable, open international economic framework. The WTO has three basic functions: (1) administers existing agreements; (2) serves as a negotiating forum for new trade liberalization; and (3) provides a mechanism to settle trade disputes among the parties. The multiple WTO Agreements: cover trade in goods, services and agriculture; remove tariff and nontariff barriers; and establish rules on government practices that directly relate to trade--for example, trade remedies, technical barriers to trade, customs valuation, intellectual property rights, and government procurement. The Agreements are based on the principles of nondiscrimination among countries, national treatment, and transparency of trade rules and regulations. Some exceptions, however, such as preferential treatment for developing countries and regional and bilateral free trade agreements, are allowed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Fefer, Rachel F.
2019-03-07
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U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative [Updated March 5, 2019]
From the Document: "Difficulty with striking an appropriate balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the Export Controls Act of 2018 (ECA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense articles; dual-use goods and technology; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2019-03-05
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World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated August 2, 2006]
"The World Trade Organization [WTO] was established in 1995 and is the principal international organization governing world trade. It has 149 member countries, representing over 95% of world trade. On November 9-14, 2001, trade ministers from WTO countries met in Doha, Qatar for its 4th Ministerial Conference. At that meeting, members agreed to a work program for a new round of multilateral trade negotiations. The work program folds on-going negotiations on agriculture and services into a broader agenda that includes industrial tariffs, topics of interest to developing countries, changes in WTO rules, and other provisions numbering 19 in all. Because of the influence that developing countries had in setting the work program, the round has become known as the Doha Development Agenda. Negotiations were to conclude by January 1, 2005, but this deadline was breached and the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority in July 2007 has become the de facto deadline for the round. Agriculture has been the linchpin in the Doha Development Agenda. U.S. goals are substantial reduction of trade-distorting domestic support; elimination of export subsidies, and improved market access. Industrial trade barriers and services are other market access topics in the negotiations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.
2006-08-02
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World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda [Updated July 10, 2006]
"The World Trade Organization [WTO] was established in 1995 and is the principal international organization governing world trade. It has 149 member countries, representing over 95% of world trade. On November 9-14, 2001, trade ministers from WTO countries met in Doha, Qatar for its 4th Ministerial Conference. At that meeting, members agreed to a work program for a new round of multilateral trade negotiations. The work program folds on-going negotiations on agriculture and services into a broader agenda that includes industrial tariffs, topics of interest to developing countries, changes in WTO rules, and other provisions numbering 19 in all. Because of the influence that developing countries had in setting the work program, the round has become known as the Doha Development Agenda. Negotiations were to conclude by January 1, 2005, but this deadline was breached and the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority in July 2007 has become the de facto deadline for the round."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.
2006-07-10
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World Trade Organization: The Hong Kong Ministerial [Updated January 20, 2006]
"The World Trade Organization (WTO) held its 6th Ministerial summit in Hong Kong from December 13-18, 2005. WTO Ministerials are held every two years to bring together trade ministers from member states, often to make political decisions for the body. Although an original goal of the Ministerial was to agree on a package of modalities (methods by which the round is negotiated) for the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations, this aim was dropped in order to avoid a high-profile failure similar to previous Ministerials at Cancun and Seattle. Rather, members agreed to some modest advancements in agriculture, industrial tariffs, and duty and quota-free access for least developed countries. The final outcome of these negotiations could provide a substantial boost to the world economy, but if the round itself is not completed, there may be repercussions for the WTO as an institution and for the architecture of the world trading system. [...] The outcome of the Ministerial potentially has significant implications for Congress. Any agreement resulting from the round must be approved by Congress, and there is pressure to come to an agreement well before the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority on July 1, 2007. In addition, any agreement on agriculture may affect the drafting or necessitate the revision of the next farm bill that may be considered by Congress in 2007. Congress has also expressed an interest in shielding U.S. trade remedy laws from negotiations. This report will be updated to reflect the outcome of the Ministerial."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jones, Vivian Catherine . . .
2006-01-20
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World Trade Organization: The Hong Kong Ministerial [Updated December 9, 2005]
"The 148 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) are preparing for the 6th Ministerial summit to be held in Hong Kong on December 13-18, 2005. WTO Ministerials are held every two years to bring together trade ministers from member states, often to make political decisions for the body. The Hong Kong Ministerial will be used to 'take stock' of the ongoing Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiations. The members will not be asked to agree to a package of modalities (methods by which the round is negotiated) because substantial disagreements are still evident among the members. The outcome of these negotiations could provide a substantial boost to the world economy, but if the round itself is not completed, there may be repercussions for the WTO as an institution and for the architecture of the world trading system. [...] The outcome of the Ministerial potentially has significant implications for Congress. Any agreement resulting from the round must be approved by Congress, and there is pressure to come to an agreement well before the expiration of U.S. trade promotion authority on July 1, 2007. In addition, any agreement on agriculture may affect the drafting or necessitate the revision of the next farm bill that may be considered by Congress in 2007. Congress has also expressed an interest in shielding U.S. trade remedy laws from negotiations. This report will be updated to reflect the outcome of the Ministerial."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jones, Vivian Catherine . . .
2005-12-09
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Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement [April 14, 2010]
"The economic and strategic architectures of Asia are evolving. One part of this evolving architecture is the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP), a free trade agreement [FTA] that includes nations on both sides of the Pacific. The existing TPP, which originally came into effect in 2006, consists of Brunei, Chile, New Zealand, and Singapore. The United States, Australia, Peru, and Vietnam have committed themselves to joining and expanding this group. […] China's rapidly expanding economy and Japan's developed economy have made them attractive trading partners to many Asian nations. Many regional states also view the United States as having been distracted by events in Iraq and Afghanistan in recent years. This has led some to increasingly look to China and Japan as key partners. China's approach to the region has also shifted dramatically in recent decades as it now pursues its interests with the region in a relatively accommodative manner. U.S. participation in the TPP would involve the negotiation of FTAs with New Zealand, Brunei, and, potentially, Vietnam. The United States currently has FTAs in force with Chile, Singapore, Australia, and Peru. Bilateral negotiations with New Zealand may focus on agricultural goods such as beef and dairy products. The possible inclusion of Vietnam may prove controversial from the standpoint of certain U.S. industry groups, such as textiles and apparel, as well as those concerned with labor, human rights and intellectual property issues. The involvement of Vietnam could add a higher level of difficulty, yet is illustrative of the challenges associated with developing a truly Asia-Pacific-wide trade grouping."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-; Fergusson, Ian F.
2010-04-14
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Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement [December 7, 2009]
"The economic and strategic architectures of Asia are evolving. One part of this evolving architecture is the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement (TPP), a free trade agreement [FTA] that includes nations on both sides of the Pacific. The TPP, which originally came into effect in 2006, currently includes Brunei, Chile, New Zealand, and Singapore. The United States, Australia, Peru, and Vietnam have also expressed interest in joining. On November 14, 2009, President Obama committed to engage with current and potential future members of the TPP to shape a broad-based regional agreement. […] U.S. participation in the TPP would involve the negotiation of FTAs with New Zealand and Brunei. The United States currently has FTAs in force with Chile and Singapore, and with interested parties Australia and Peru. Bilateral negotiations with New Zealand may focus on agricultural goods such as beef and dairy products. The possible inclusion of Vietnam may prove controversial from the standpoint of certain U.S. industry groups, such as textiles and apparel, as well as those concerned with human rights and intellectual property issues. The involvement of Vietnam could add a higher level of difficulty and is illustrative of the challenges associated with developing a truly Asia-Pacific-wide trade grouping. All the potential parties may face complex negotiations in integrating the myriad FTAs that already exist between some TPP parties."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-
2009-12-07
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U.S. Natural Gas Exports: New Opportunities, Uncertain Outcomes [September 17, 2013]
"As estimates for the amount of U.S. natural gas resources have grown, so have the prospects of rising U.S. natural gas exports. The United States is expected to go from a net importer of natural gas to a net exporter by 2020. Projects to export liquefied natural gas (LNG) by tanker ship have been proposed--cumulatively accounting for about 41.4% of current gross U.S. natural gas production--and are at varying stages of regulatory approval. Projects require federal approval under Section 3 of the Natural Gas Act (15 U.S.C. §717b), with the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission being the lead authorizing agencies. Pipeline exports, which accounted for 98% of all exports of U.S. produced natural gas in 2012, are also likely to continue rising."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parfomak, Paul W.; Fergusson, Ian F.; Luther, Linda G. . . .
2013-09-17
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NAFTA at 20: Overview and Trade Effects [April 11, 2014]
"The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) entered into force on January 1, 1994. The agreement was signed by President George H.W. Bush on December 17, 1992, and approved by Congress on November 20, 1993. The NAFTA Implementation Act was signed into law by President William J. Clinton on December 8, 1993 (P.L. 103-182). The overall economic impact of NAFTA is difficult to measure since trade and investment trends are influenced by numerous other economic variables, such as economic growth, inflation, and currency fluctuations. The agreement may have accelerated the trade liberalization that was already taking place, but many of these changes may have taken place with or without an agreement. Nevertheless, NAFTA is significant because it was the most comprehensive free trade agreement (FTA) negotiated at the time and contained several groundbreaking provisions. A legacy of the agreement is that it has served as a template or model for the new generation of FTAs that the United States later negotiated and it also served as a template for certain provisions in multilateral trade negotiations as part of the Uruguay Round."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Villarreal, M. Angeles; Fergusson, Ian F.
2014-04-11
