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Federal Role in Voter Registration: The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 and Subsequent Developments [Updated January 23, 2019]

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"Historically, most aspects of election administration have been left to state and local governments, resulting in a variety of practices across jurisdictions with respect to voter registration. States can vary on a number of elements of the voter registration process, including whether or not to require voter registration; where or when voter registration occurs; and how voters may be removed from registration lists. The right of citizens to vote, however, is presented in the U.S. Constitution in the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty-sixth Amendments. Beginning with the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965, Congress has sometimes passed legislation requiring certain uniform practices for federal elections, intended to prevent any state policies that may result in the disenfranchisement of eligible voters. The National Voter Registration Act (NVRA) was enacted in 1993 and set forth a number of voter registration requirements for states to follow regarding voter registration processes for federal elections."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2019-01-23
Congressional Member Organizations (CMOs) and Informal Member Groups: Their Purpose and Activities, History, and Formation [Updated January 23, 2019]

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From the Introduction, "Several hundred informal Member organizations exist within the House of Representatives, Senate, or between both the chambers; these organizations typically reflect Members' shared legislative objectives or representational interests. These groups may commonly be described as congressional caucuses, working groups, or task forces, but in this report, will be identified, collectively, as informal Member organizations, to avoid confusion with official party caucuses. An additional distinction between informal Member organizations may be drawn. In the House of Representatives, some groups may register with the Committee on House Administration to form a Congressional Member Organization (CMO). CMOs registered with the Committee on House Administration can include groups exclusively for House Members or bicameral groups that include House Members and Senators. Informal Member organizations that are not registered with the Committee on House Administration are called informal Member groups; these include groups exclusive to the Senate, which does not have any formal registration process for informal Member organizations. These distinctions are described in greater detail in the sections below. The Appendix provides some considerations for House Members seeking to form a CMO. Some of these considerations that are not exclusive to the House process, such as determining a group's objective and possible membership, may also be of interest to Senators or House Members seeking to form an informal Member group."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2019-01-23
Election Security: Voter Registration System Policy Issues [August 7, 2019]

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From the Document: "Discussions about federal election security often focus on protecting voting machines and ensuring the integrity of election results, but voter registration processes may also be vulnerable to interference. Real or perceived threats to voter registration data could undermine public confidence in the electoral system. Altered voter registration data could potentially prevent eligible individuals from voting or allow ineligible individuals to vote in many states and territories. Voter data may also be a target for identity thieves or others seeking access to individuals' personal information."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2019-08-07
House Committee Party Ratios: 98th-116th Congresses [Updated September 5, 2019]

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From the Summary: "The party ratio in a House of Representatives standing committee refers to the proportional number of members of each party caucus assigned to each committee. Determining sizes, ratios, and committee assignments are among the first actions taken following a general election and at the beginning of a Congress. [...] This report shows House committee party ratios for 19 Congresses, covering the period from the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through February 2019, the first part of the 116th Congress (2017- 2019)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.; Egar, William T.

2019-09-05
Apportionment and Redistricting Process for the U.S. House of Representatives [October 10, 2019]

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From the Document: "The census, apportionment, and redistricting are interrelated activities that affect representation in the U.S. House of Representatives. Congressional apportionment (or reapportionment) is the process of dividing seats for the House among the 50 states following the decennial census. Redistricting refers to the process that follows, in which states create new congressional districts or redraw existing district boundaries to adjust for population changes and/or changes in the number of House seats for the state. At times, Congress has passed or considered legislation addressing apportionment and redistricting processes under its broad authority to make law affecting House elections under Article I, Section 4, of the U.S. Constitution. These processes are all rooted in provisions in Article I, Section 2 (as amended by Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2019-10-10
Campaign and Election Security Policy: Overview and Recent Developments for Congress [January 2, 2020]

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From the Document: "In the United States, state, territorial, and local governments are responsible for most aspects of selecting and securing election systems and equipment. Foreign interference during the 2016 election cycle--and widely reported to be an ongoing threat--has renewed congressional attention to campaign and election security and raised new questions about the nature and extent of the federal government's role in this policy area. This report provides congressional readers with a resource for understanding campaign and election security policy. This includes discussion of the federal government's roles; state or territorial responsibilities for election administration and election security; an overview of potentially relevant federal statutes and agencies; and highlights of recent congressional policy debates. The report summarizes related legislation that has advanced beyond introduction during the 116th Congress. It also poses questions for consideration as the House and Senate examine whether or how to pursue legislation, oversight, or appropriations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-; Eckman, Sarah J.; Shanton, Karen L.

2020-01-02
House Committee Party Ratios: 98th-117th Congresses [Updated April 16, 2021]

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From the Summary: "The party ratio in a House of Representatives standing committee refers to the proportional number of members of each party caucus assigned to each committee. Determining sizes, ratios, and committee assignments are among the first actions taken following a general election and at the beginning of a Congress. The Standing Rules of the House of Representatives are silent regarding committee sizes and party ratios; the apportionment of committee seats is a decision of the majority leadership that may include discussions between majority and minority party leaderships. Historically, the number of majority seats on some committees has exceeded, in varying degrees, the strength of the majority party in the House chamber, regardless of which party has been in power. This generally has ensured that the majority party has a sufficient number of members distributed across committees to control voting in many committees. The exception has been the House Committee on Ethics (known as the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct prior to the 112th Congress), for which House Rules guarantee an equal share of the seats to the two parties. This report shows House committee party ratios for 20 Congresses, covering the period from the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through February 2021, the first part of the 117th Congress (2021- 2023)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2021-04-16
Senate Committee Party Ratios: 98th-117th Congresses [Updated April 16, 2021]

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From the Summary: "The party ratio in the Senate standing committees is the proportional number of members of each party caucus assigned to each committee. Determining committee sizes, ratios, and assignments are among the first actions taken after a general election and at the beginning of a Congress. [...] This report shows Senate committee party ratios for 20 Congresses, covering the period of the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through March 2021, the first part of the 117th Congress (2021-2023)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2021-04-16
Apportionment and Redistricting Following the 2020 Census [Updated April 27, 2021]

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From the Document: "The census, apportionment, and congressional redistricting are interrelated processes that occur every decade. The U.S. Constitution [hyperlink] provides that a decennial census determines the distribution of U.S. House seats [hyperlink] across states. Dividing House seats across states is known as 'apportionment' [hyperlink] (or 'reapportionment'). Each state must receive one House seat and additional seats are distributed proportionally based on state population size. States then engage in 'redistricting', creating or redrawing geographic subdivisions with relatively equal-sized populations [hyperlink] for each House district. Timelines for the census and apportionment are provided in federal statute and generally occur as scheduled every decade. The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, however, affected 2020 census field operations and delivery of apportionment figures, and concerns remain about timing for the redistricting processes that follow. This Insight provides background on the typical timing of the census, apportionment, and redistricting, as well as a brief discussion of recent census operational changes and proposals, particularly those related to congressional apportionment and redistricting."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2021-04-27
House Committee Party Ratios: 98th - 115th Congresses [November 8, 2018]

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"The Standing Rules of the House of Representatives are silent regarding committee sizes and party ratios; the apportionment of committee seats is a decision of the majority leadership that may include discussions between majority and minority party leaderships occurring during early organization meetings. Historically, the number of majority seats on some committees has exceeded, in varying degrees, the strength of the majority party in the House chamber, regardless of which party has been in power. This generally has ensured that the majority party has a sufficient number of members distributed across committees to control voting in many committees. The exception has been the House Committee on Ethics (known as the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct prior to the 112th Congress), for which House Rules guarantee an equal share of the seats to the two parties. This report shows House committee party ratios for 18 Congresses from the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through the beginning of the 115th Congress (2017-2019)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2018-11-08
Internships in Congressional Offices: Frequently Asked Questions [October 15, 2018]

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"Many interns serve Congress, assisting individual Members, committees, and other offices or support services. Interns serve the House or Senate in a temporary capacity, primarily for an educational benefit, although some interns may receive pay for their service. Like many aspects of congressional operations, individual House or Senate offices can make many of their own rules and guidelines for interns, if they choose to operate an internship program. Additional institutional rules, however, may also apply.In the House, policies set by the Committee on Ethics or the Committee on House Administration may also affect congressional offices and interns, and in the Senate, additional relevant policies may be set by the Senate Select Committee on Ethics or the Committee on Rules and Administration."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2018-10-15
Federal Role in Voter Registration: The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 and Subsequent Developments [November 28, 2017]

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"States can vary on a number of elements of the voter registration process, including whether or not to require voter registration; where or when voter registration occurs; and how voters may be removed from registration lists. The right of citizens to vote, however, is presented in the U.S. Constitution in the 15th, 19th, and 26th Amendments. Beginning with the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965, Congress has sometimes passed legislation requiring certain uniform practices for federal elections, intended to prevent any state policies that may result in the disenfranchisement of eligible voters. The National Voter Registration Act (NVRA) was enacted in 1993 and set forth a number of voter registration requirements for states to follow regarding voter registration processes for federal elections. NVRA is commonly referred to as the motor-voter bill, as it required states to provide voter registration opportunities alongside services provided by departments of motor vehicles (DMVs), although NVRA required other state and local offices providing public services to provide voter registration opportunities as well. NVRA also created a federal mail-based voter registration form that all states are required to accept and created criteria for state voter registration forms. Certain procedures states must follow for performing voter registration list maintenance or removing voters from registration lists are also set forth in NVRA. The Federal Election Commission (FEC) provided guidance to state election officials and issued biennial reports to Congress on NVRA implementation and voter registration in each state until these roles were transferred to the Election Assistance Commission (EAC) in 2002."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2017-11-28
Congressional Member Organizations (CMOs) and Informal Member Groups [February 8, 2019]

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From the Document: "In addition to party organizations and committees, Members of the House and Senate often participate in informal Member organizations. In the 115th Congress, 854 informal Member organizations--which are commonly referred to as caucuses, working groups, or task forces--existed. In this Insight, however, they are collectively described as 'informal Member organizations' to avoid confusion with official party caucuses. [...] Informal Member organizations are formed for a variety of reasons, usually associated with Members' policy objectives or representational considerations. These groups can enable Members to raise awareness about a particular topic and exchange information or ideas with colleagues (within or across chambers). At times, some groups may share legislative or representational interests with the House or Senate at large, certain party leaders, or particular committees. Yet Member organizations can also create forums for differing viewpoints, new subjects or policy alternatives, or more particular constituent concerns."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2019-02-08
House Committee Party Ratios: 98th-114th Congresses [December 7, 2015]

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From the Introduction: "The party ratio in a House of Representatives standing committee refers to the proportional number of members of each party caucus assigned to each committee. Determining sizes, ratios, and committee assignments are among the first actions taken following a general election and at the beginning of a Congress. The Standing Rules of the House of Representatives are silent regarding committee sizes and party ratios; the apportionment of committee seats is a decision of the majority leadership that may include discussions between majority and minority party leaderships occurring during early organization meetings. Historically, the number of majority seats on most committees has exceeded, in varying degrees, the strength of the majority party in the House chamber, regardless of which party has been in power. In instances of close party division in the House chamber, the majority party has ensured that it has a majority sufficient to guarantee party control in committees. The exception has been the House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct, for which House Rules guarantee an equal share of the seats to the two parties. While individual committees' ratios may vary substantially from the proportional number of majority and minority Members of the House, the aggregate number of seats better reflects the proportion in the chamber itself, while still favoring the majority party. This report shows House committee party ratios for 17 Congresses from the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through the 114th Congress (2015-2017). Tables for each Congress include the standing committees and a permanent select committee as established and named in each Congress. An additional table provides a comparison of majority party strength in the House chamber and total committee seats."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Glassman, Matthew; Eckman, Sarah J.

2015-12-07
Staff Tenure in Selected Positions in Senators' Offices, 2006-2016 [November 9, 2016]

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"The length of time a congressional staff member spends employed in a particular position in Congress-or congressional staff tenure-is a source of recurring interest to Members, staff, and the public. A congressional office, for example, may seek this information to assess its human resources capabilities, or for guidance in how frequently staffing changes might be expected for various positions. Congressional staff may seek this type of information to evaluate and approach their own individual career trajectories. This report presents a number of statistical measures regarding the length of time Senate office staff stay in particular job positions. It is designed to facilitate the consideration of tenure from a number of perspectives. This report provides tenure data for a selection of 18 staff position titles that are typically used in Senators' offices, and information on how to use those data for different purposes. The positions include Administrative Director, Casework Supervisor, Caseworker, Chief Counsel, Chief of Staff, Communications Director, Counsel, Executive Assistant, Field Representative, Legislative Assistant, Legislative Correspondent, Legislative Director, Office Manager, Press Secretary, Regional Representative, Scheduler, Staff Assistant, and State Director. Senators' staff tenure data were calculated as of March 31, for each year between 2006 and 2016, for all staff in each position. An overview table provides staff tenure for selected positions for 2016, including summary statistics and information on whether the time staff stayed in a position increased, was unchanged, or decreased between 2006 and 2016. Other tables provide detailed tenure data and visualizations for each position title."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2016-11-09
Staff Tenure in Selected Positions in House Member Offices, 2006-2016 [November 9, 2016]

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"The length of time a congressional staff member spends employed in a particular position in Congress-or congressional staff tenure-is a source of recurring interest to Members, staff, and the public. A congressional office, for example, may seek this information to assess its human resources capabilities, or for guidance in how frequently staffing changes might be expected for various positions. Congressional staff may seek this type of information to evaluate and approach their own individual career trajectories. This report presents a number of statistical measures regarding the length of time House office staff stay in particular job positions. It is designed to facilitate the consideration of tenure from a number of perspectives. This report provides tenure data for a selection of 16 staff position titles that are typically used in House Member offices, and information on how to use those data for different purposes. The positions include Administrative Director, Casework Supervisor, Caseworker, Chief of Staff, Communications Director, Counsel, District Director, Executive Assistant, Field Representative, Legislative Assistant, Legislative Correspondent, Legislative Director, Office Manager, Press Secretary, Scheduler, and Staff Assistant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2016-11-09
Staff Tenure in Selected Positions in Senate Committees, 2006-2016 [November 9, 2016]

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"The length of time a congressional staff member spends employed in a particular position in Congress-or congressional staff tenure-is a source of recurring interest to Members, staff, and the public. A congressional office, for example, may seek this information to assess its human resources capabilities, or for guidance in how frequently staffing changes might be expected for various positions. Congressional staff may seek this type of information to evaluate and approach their own individual career trajectories. This report presents a number of statistical measures regarding the length of time Senate committee staff stay in particular job positions. It is designed to facilitate the consideration of tenure from a number of perspectives. This report provides tenure data for a selection of 15 staff position titles that are typically used in Senate committee offices, and information on how to use those data for different purposes. The positions include Chief Clerk, Chief Counsel, Communications Director, Counsel, Deputy Staff Director, Legislative Assistant, Minority Staff Director, Press Secretary, Professional Staff Member, Senior Counsel, Senior Professional Staff Member, Staff Assistant, Staff Director, Subcommittee Staff Director, and Systems Administrator. Senate committee staff tenure data were calculated as of March 31, for each year between 2006 and 2016, for all staff in each position. An overview table provides staff tenure for selected positions for 2016, including summary statistics and information on whether the time staff stayed in a position increased, was unchanged, or decreased between 2006 and 2016. Other tables provide detailed tenure data and visualizations for each position title."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2016-11-09
Staff Tenure in Selected Positions in House Committees, 2006-2016 [November 9, 2016]

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"The length of time a congressional staff member spends employed in a particular position in Congress-or congressional staff tenure-is a source of recurring interest to Members, staff, and the public. A congressional office, for example, may seek this information to assess its human resources capabilities, or for guidance in how frequently staffing changes might be expected for various positions. Congressional staff may seek this type of information to evaluate and approach their own individual career trajectories. This report presents a number of statistical measures regarding the length of time House committee staff stay in particular job positions. It is designed to facilitate the consideration of tenure from a number of perspectives. This report provides tenure data for a selection of 13 staff position titles that are typically used in House committee offices, and information on how to use those data for different purposes. The positions include Chief Clerk, Chief Counsel, Communications Director, Counsel, Deputy Staff Director, Minority Professional Staff Member, Minority Staff Director, Press Secretary, Professional Staff Member, Senior Professional Staff Member, Staff Assistant, Staff Director, and Subcommittee Staff Director. House committee staff tenure data were calculated as of March 31, for each year between 2006 and 2016, for all staff in each position. An overview table provides staff tenure for selected positions for 2016, including summary statistics and information on whether the time staff stayed in a position increased, was unchanged, or decreased between 2006 and 2016. Other tables provide detailed tenure data and visualizations for each position title."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2016-11-09
Internships in Congressional Offices: Frequently Asked Questions [Updated June 3, 2020]

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From the Summary: "This report addresses frequently asked questions (FAQs) about congressional interns and internships. It is intended to provide information to congressional offices about the role of interns and to provide a summary of some of the policies and guidance provided by the House and the Senate related to internships. It addresses the House and Senate rules that apply to congressional internships, factors that may affect an office's selection process and an individual's eligibility to serve in an internship, and some of the congressional resources and training opportunities available for interns."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2020-06-03
Mail Voting and COVID-19: Developments and Potential Challenges [April 23, 2020]

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From the Document: "Most voters reported voting in person in 2018, but the onset of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has complicated in-person voting for certain subsequent elections in 2020. Health risks associated with close contact have prompted concerns about some of the standard interactions involved in preparing for and conducting in-person voting. States have taken various steps to address such concerns for some of their 2020 elections, including postponing election dates, offering curbside voting, and relocating polling places. One common response has been to expand 'mail voting', in which voters receive ballots by mail rather than in person. Expanding mail voting could help address health risks but may come with its own challenges. Whether or how mail voting should be expanded and what role, if any, Congress should play in this policy area have been subjects of debate in the 116th Congress."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Shanton, Karen L.; Eckman, Sarah J.

2020-04-23
Apportionment and Redistricting Following the 2020 Census [Updated December 9, 2020]

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From the Document: "The census, apportionment, and congressional redistricting are interrelated processes that occur every decade. The U.S. Constitution provides that a decennial census determines the distribution of U.S. House seats across states, though the federal government today also uses census data for other purposes, such as distributing funding to states and localities. The process of dividing House seats across states is known as 'apportionment' (or 'reapportionment'). Each state must receive one House seat and additional seats are distributed proportionally based on state population size. States then engage in 'redistricting', creating or redrawing geographic subdivisions for each House district with relatively equal-sized populations. Timelines for the census and apportionment are provided in federal statute and generally occur as scheduled every decade. The COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic, however, affected 2020 census field operations, and raised concerns about timing for the apportionment and redistricting processes that follow the completion of the census. This Insight provides background on the typical timing of the census, apportionment, and redistricting, as well as a brief discussion of recent 2020 census operational changes and proposals, particularly those related to the subsequent congressional apportionment and redistricting."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2020-12-09
Congressional Nominations to U.S. Service Academies: An Overview and Resources for Outreach and Management [April 13, 2017]

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"Members of Congress are authorized by law to nominate candidates for appointment to four U.S. service academies. These schools are the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy. The fifth service academy, the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, does not require a congressional nomination for appointment. These institutions prepare college-age Americans to be officers of the U.S. uniformed services. Upon graduation, service academy graduates are commissioned as officers in the active or reserve components of the military or merchant marine for a minimum of five years. […] This report describes statutory requirements for allocating congressional nominations to service academies. It also identifies the qualifications that must be met by potential nominees, as established by statute and each academy. Finally, sample documents that could be used by congressional offices at various stages of the nomination selection process are included. These documents provide basic information and can be customized to fit the specific needs of individual office policies."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2017-04-13
Congressional News Media and the House and Senate Press Galleries [April 13, 2017]

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"The House and Senate press galleries provide services both for journalists and for Members of Congress. The news media helps Members communicate with the public, and enables the public to learn about policy initiatives, understand the legislative process, and observe elected officials representing their constituents. In the earliest Congresses, news reports commonly provided the most comprehensive record of congressional proceedings, even for Members themselves, because few official documents were kept. To accommodate the press, and in response to its growth through the mid-19th century, the House and Senate established formal press galleries in 1877, providing resources and organization for journalists reporting from the Capitol. This report provides information about the rules and authorities that affect media coverage of Congress, current practices among the press galleries, and selected data on gallery membership since the 94th Congress. It also provides a brief discussion of considerations that commonly underlie the galleries' practices or may affect gallery operations and congressional media rules."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2017-04-13
Video Broadcasting of Congressional Proceedings [April 17, 2017]

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"From postal mail to social media, Members of Congress have regularly adopted and utilized new communications tools to better inform constituents about the workings of Congress and important policy matters. Some of these communications advancements also facilitate better information within Congress as it undertakes its legislative work. By the mid-20th century, radio and television broadcasts offered Congress the ability, for the first time, to provide real-time information about events unfolding on the chamber floors or in committees. […] This report begins with a brief history of early congressional experiences with television coverage and background on the decisions to allow regular committee and floor broadcasts. The next sections describe how video coverage is administered within Congress, discussing rules, regulations, and authorities affecting video recording and broadcasting for House committees, House floor proceedings, Senate committees, and Senate floor proceedings. A brief overview of C-SPAN's history, organization, and operating structure is then provided. The final sections of this report discuss some recent events related to congressional video and highlight some of the new challenges presented by smartphone and wireless broadcasting technologies."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2017-04-17
Congressional Nominations to U.S. Service Academies: An Overview and Resources for Outreach and Management [November 10, 2015]

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"Members of Congress are authorized by law to nominate candidates for appointment to four U.S. service academies. These schools are the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy. The fifth service academy, the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, does not require a congressional nomination for appointment. These institutions prepare college-age Americans to be officers of the U.S. uniformed services. Upon graduation, service academy graduates are commissioned as officers in the active or reserve components of the military or merchant marine for a minimum of five years. The nomination of constituents to one of the service academies can provide Members of Congress with the opportunity to perform community outreach and other representational duties. In some states and congressional districts, nominations are highly competitive. Others are less competitive, and some offices do not receive expressions of interest from enough applicants to fill the number of nominations allocated. Consequently, some congressional offices might need to dedicate considerable staff resources to the selection process to identify qualified candidates, while others can incorporate service academy nominations alongside other constituent service work such as casework. […] This report describes statutory requirements for allocating congressional nominations to service academies. It also identifies the qualifications that must be met by potential nominees, as established by statute and each academy. Finally, sample documents that could be used by congressional offices at various stages of the nomination selection process are included. These documents provide basic information and can be customized to fit the specific needs of individual office policies."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2015-11-10
Congressional Nominations to U.S. Service Academies: An Overview and Resources for Outreach and Management [April 21, 2016]

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"Members of Congress are authorized by law to nominate candidates for appointment to four U.S. service academies. These schools are the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy. The fifth service academy, the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, does not require a congressional nomination for appointment. These institutions prepare college-age Americans to be officers of the U.S. uniformed services. Upon graduation, service academy graduates are commissioned as officers in the active or reserve components of the military or merchant marine for a minimum of five years. The nomination of constituents to one of the service academies can provide Members of Congress with the opportunity to perform community outreach and other representational duties. In some states and congressional districts, nominations are highly competitive. Others are less competitive, and some offices do not receive expressions of interest from enough applicants to fill the number of nominations allocated. Consequently, some congressional offices might need to dedicate considerable staff resources to the selection process to identify qualified candidates, while others can incorporate service academy nominations alongside other constituent service work such as casework."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2016-04-21
Internships in Congressional Offices: Frequently Asked Questions [May 6, 2016]

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"Many interns serve Congress, assisting individual Members, committees, and other offices or support services. Interns serve the House or Senate in a temporary capacity, primarily for an educational benefit, although some interns may receive pay for their service. Like many aspects of congressional operations, individual House or Senate offices can make many of their own rules and guidelines for interns, if they choose to operate an internship program. Additional institutional rules, however, may also apply. In the House, policies set by the Committee on Ethics or the Committee on House Administration may also affect congressional offices and interns, and in the Senate, additional relevant policies may be set by the Senate Select Committee on Ethics or the Committee on Rules and Administration. This report addresses frequently asked questions (FAQs) about congressional interns and internships. It is intended to provide information to congressional offices about the role of interns and to provide a summary of some of the policies and guidance provided by the House and the Senate related to internships. It addresses the House and Senate rules that apply to congressional internships, factors that may affect an office's selection process and an individual's eligibility to serve in an internship, and some of the congressional resources and training opportunities available for interns."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2016-05-06
Casework in a Congressional Office: Background, Rules, Laws, and Resources [Updated April 1, 2021]

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From the Summary: "In a congressional office, the term 'casework' refers to the response or services that Members of Congress provide to constituents who request assistance. Each year, thousands of constituents turn to Members of Congress with a wide range of requests, from the simple to the complex. Members and their staffs help constituents deal with administrative agencies by acting as facilitators, ombudsmen, and, in some cases, advocates. In addition to serving individual constituents, some congressional offices also consider as casework liaison activities between the federal government and local governments, businesses, communities, and nonprofit organizations. [...] This report discusses House and Senate rules and guidelines, laws, and regulations affecting congressional casework, as well as the role of caseworkers. It also provides sample outlines and document templates for implementing and managing congressional casework."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Petersen, R. Eric; Eckman, Sarah J.

2021-04-01
Senate Committee Party Ratios: 98th-114th Congresses [December 7, 2015]

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"The party ratio in the Senate standing committees is the proportional number of members of each party caucus assigned to each committee. Determining committee sizes, ratios, and assignments are among the first actions taken after a general election and at the beginning of a Congress. The standing rules of the Senate are silent on the subject of committee party ratios. The apportionment of committee seats results from discussions between majority and minority party leadership. In general, it has been the practice of the Senate to apportion committee seats to the majority and minority parties in a manner that corresponds closely to the party strength in the full chamber. Findings from this study indicate that the majority party ratios on committees roughly approximate the majority party strength in the Senate chamber, regardless of which party has been in control. This report shows Senate committee party ratios for 17 Congresses, covering the period of the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through the 114th Congress (2015-2017)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Glassman, Matthew; Eckman, Sarah J.

2015-12-07
Senate Committee Party Ratios: 98th - 115th Congresses [November 8, 2018]

Show summary Open resource [pdf] (open full abstract)
"The party ratio in the Senate standing committees is the proportional number of members of each party caucus assigned to each committee. Determining committee sizes, ratios, and assignments are among the first actions taken after a general election and at the beginning of a Congress. The standing rules of the Senate are silent on the subject of committee party ratios. The apportionment of committee seats results from discussions between majority and minority party leadership. In general, it has been the practice of the Senate to apportion committee seats to the majority and minority parties in a manner that corresponds closely to the party strength in the full chamber. Findings from this study indicate that the majority party ratios on committees roughly approximate the majority party strength in the Senate chamber, regardless of which party has been in control. This report shows Senate committee party ratios for 18 Congresses, covering the period of the 98th Congress (1983-1985) through April 2017, the first part of the 115th Congress (2017-2019)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Eckman, Sarah J.

2018-11-08

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