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• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Coastal Wetland and Wildlife Impacts and Response [October 15, 2010]

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  "The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010, and the resulting oil spill began a cascade of effects on the coastal areas of the Gulf and on the wealth of species that inhabit those areas, effects that continue even though oil stopped flowing in July and the well was sealed in September. Gulf coast wetlands, like those elsewhere, have value for water quality, flood control, shoreline protection, and recreation. They serve as nurseries for many species, including fish and shellfish of commercial significance, waterfowl, and a host of resident and migratory species. They also have cultural importance to the people of the Gulf. The effects of the spill come on top of historic wetland losses due to subsidence, drainage, and saltwater intrusion, along with rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and global climate change. Impacts of oil spills on wetland ecosystems depend on multiple factors, including the type of oil, exposure of the oil to weathering factors before it reaches the shore, the season in which the spill occurs, etc. Mitigation and cleanup of damage to wetlands is far from an exact science and involves many tradeoffs; there is no single, best solution. A number of options exist, ranging from mechanical recovery and use of dispersants to doing nothing. Estimating wildlife impacts is particularly difficult in this case because the spill occurred far offshore, and the initial wildlife mortality came far out in the Gulf, where animals sank without reaching the shore. When oil arrived at the shore, more animals began to be counted. Moreover, because the Gulf wetlands host many species of birds during seasonal migrations, impacts of the spill could be felt in areas well away from the Gulf."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Copeland, Claudia

  2010-10-15
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Coastal Wetland and Wildlife Impacts and Response [July 7, 2010]

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  "The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010, and the resulting oil spill began a cascade of effects on the coastal areas of the Gulf and on the wealth of species that inhabit those areas. These wetlands, like those elsewhere, have value for water quality, flood control, shoreline protection, and recreation. They serve as nurseries for many species, including fish and shellfish of commercial significance, waterfowl, and a host of resident and migratory species. They also have cultural importance to the people of the Gulf. The effects of the spill come on top of historic wetland losses due to subsidence, drainage, and saltwater intrusion, along with rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and global climate change. [...] Oil has reached more than 10% of Gulf shoreline, but until oil from the well stops flowing, very little cleanup of wetlands is occurring, because of both the ongoing risk of greater harm from cleanup and the potential for re-oiling. As cleanup proceeds, a number of questions arise. To cite only two, what factors will determine cleanup strategies, and how are needs to improve scientific understanding of the spill's impacts being considered?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2010-07-07
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Coastal Wetland and Wildlife Impacts and Response [August 5, 2010]

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  "Impacts of oil spills on wetland ecosystems depend on multiple factors, including the type of oil, exposure of the oil to weathering factors before it reaches the shore, the season in which the spill occurs, etc. Estimating wildlife impacts is particularly difficult in this case because the spill occurred far offshore, and the initial wildlife mortality came far out in the Gulf, where animals sank without reaching the shore. With the arrival of oil closer to the shore, more animals could be counted. Moreover, because the Gulf wetlands host many species of birds during seasonal migrations, impacts of the spill could be felt in areas well away from the Gulf. Mitigation and cleanup of damage to wetlands is far from an exact science and involves many tradeoffs: there is no single, best solution. This report describes a range of options from mechanical recovery and use of dispersants to doing nothing. Among other issues is a seemingly simple question: who decides what to do? But the answer is complex. The organizational structure for deciding how to respond to oil spills is specified in the National Contingency Plan (NCP), which was created administratively and has been broadened by the Clean Water Act, the Superfund law, and the Oil Pollution Act. Under the NCP structure, the Coast Guard is the lead federal agency for overseeing response and cleanup. Oil has reached more than 10% of Gulf shoreline, but until oil from the well stopped flowing, very little cleanup of wetlands was occurring, because of both the ongoing risk of greater harm from cleanup and the potential for re-oiling. As cleanup proceeds, a number of questions arise. To cite only two, what factors will determine cleanup strategies, and how are needs to improve scientific understanding of the spill's impacts being considered?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2010-08-05
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Background and Issues [February 5, 2008]

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  "The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has been ratified by 167 nations, including the United States. It regulates the international trade in animals and plants that may be threatened by trade. CITES entered into force in 1975 and currently regulates the trade of approximately 28,000 species of plants and 5,000 species of animals. Many believe that CITES has been a success, citing that no species listed under CITES has gone extinct in the last 30 years. Others believe that CITES, although successful, has had implementation difficulties, such as the lack of enforcement and implementation regulations in some party nations. […] In the United States, comparisons of wildlife protection under the ESA [Endangered Species Act] and CITES may be an emerging issue for Congress. Some argue that the ESA regulations on importing some foreign species may inhibit conservation efforts in foreign countries that rely on funds generated from wildlife trade. Others respond by noting that CITES is focused only on the trade in endangered species, rather than the overall protection and conservation of the species such as in the ESA. Issues regarding the effectiveness of enforcing CITES and the implementation of CITES may also emerge."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2008-02-05
• Global Climate Change and Wildlife [May 15, 2008]

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  "Recently projected climate changes could have widespread effects on wildlife species. These effects might be positive or negative, depending on the species. Some effects might include extinction, range shifts, mismatches in phenology (timing of pollination, flowering, etc.), and population changes. Effects of climate change on wildlife have been reported for some species and populations in localized areas. Many scientists contend that climate change acts in concert with other variables (such as habitat) to affect species. If the effects of climate change are widespread, there is uncertainty on how wildlife will adapt. Some suggest that evolution and migration will enable species to adapt, whereas others contend that adaptation will be minimal because of limited habitat, and changes in climate that may occur more rapidly than adaptation can respond."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Leggett, Jane A.

  2008-05-15
• Hunting, Fishing, Recreational Shooting, and Other Wildlife Measures [September 21, 2012]

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  "Several issues related to hunting, fishing, and recreational shooting, on both federal and state lands are addressed in S. 3525, the Sportsman's Act of 2012. Hunting and conservation have been linked since the advent of federal wildlife legislation, such as the Lacey Act of 19001 (making it a federal crime to ship game killed in violation of one state's laws to another state) or the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 19182 (regulating the killing, hunting, buying, or selling of migratory birds). Even so, controversy exists about exactly what hunting, fishing, or shooting sports currently are allowed on federal land and when. Under current law, opening more lands to hunting, fishing, and recreational shooting is to be balanced against good game management, public safety, resource management, and the statutory purposes of the lands. S. 3525 focuses on physical access to federal lands where these activities are already allowed by acquiring lands or rights of way."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Buck, Eugene H.; Alexander, Kristina

  2012-09-21
• Federal Land Ownership: Current Acquisition and Disposal Authorities [December 13, 2012]

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  "The federal government owns roughly 635 million acres, more than a quarter of the land in the United States. These lands are heavily concentrated in 12 western states (including Alaska, but not Hawaii), where the federal government owns more than half of the overall land area. Four federal agencies-the National Park Service (NPS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and Bureau of Land Management (BLM), all in the Department of the Interior (DOI), and the U.S. Forest Service (FS) in the Department of Agriculture-administer about 95% of those lands. This report describes the primary authorities of these agencies for acquiring and disposing of land. The various acquisition and disposal authorities were provided by Congress through various laws enacted over more than a century. The extent to which the agencies have authority to acquire and dispose of land, and the nature of the authorities, vary considerably. Some of the agencies have relatively broad authority to acquire and/or dispose of land. Most notably, the BLM has relatively broad authority for both acquisitions and disposals. By contrast, the NPS has no general authority to acquire land to create new park units or to dispose of park lands. The extent of the acquisition and disposal authorities for the FS and the FWS are not nearly as broad as the BLM's but not nearly as restrictive as the NPS's. The FS authority to acquire lands is mostly limited to lands within or contiguous to the boundaries of a national forest. The agency has various authorities to dispose of land, but they are relatively constrained and infrequently used. The FWS has various authorities to acquire lands, but no general authority to dispose of its lands."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hardy Vincent, Carol; Comay, Laura B.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2012-12-13
• Bee Health: The Role of Pesticides [December 11, 2012]

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  "This report: 1) Describes changes in managed and wild bee populations, given readily available data and information. It focuses on managed and wild bees only, and excludes other types of pollinators, including other insects, birds, and bats. Data on managed honey bees are limited, and do not provide a comprehensive view of changes in bee populations. Data for wild bee populations are even more limited. 2) Provides a listing of the range of possible factors thought to be negatively affecting managed and wild bee populations. In addition to pesticides, other identified factors include bee pests and diseases, diet and nutrition, genetics, habitat loss and other environmental stressors, and beekeeping management issues, as well as the possibility that bees are being negatively affected by cumulative, multiple exposures and/or the interactive effects of each of these factors. 3) Briefly summarizes readily available scientific research and analysis regarding the potential role of pesticides among the factors affecting the health and well-being of bees, as well as the statutory authority and related regulatory activities of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) related to pesticide use."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Johnson, Renée; Schierow, Linda-Jo

  2012-12-11
• Guns, Excise Taxes, and Wildlife Restoration [March 18, 2013]

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  "As a result of the recent debate over guns, gun rights, and gun-related violence, there has been a marked increase in sales of many weapons as well as ammunition. Through an excise tax on firearms and ammunition, such sales have a marked beneficial effect on funding for state wildlife programs through the Wildlife Restoration Program (also known as Pittman-Robertson or P-R). This report examines these taxes, their allocation, and their use. It also examines the effects of sequestration of this account, pursuant to the Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA; P.L. 112-25)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gravelle, Jane

  2013-03-18
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): A Primer for the 112th Congress [February 14, 2012]

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  This report for Congress provides information on the issue of energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska (ANWR). "ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and oil and natural gas potential. Its development has been debated for more than 50 years, but sharp increases in energy prices from late 2000 to early 2001, in 2004-2008, and in 2011 from a variety of causes (e.g., terrorist attacks, oil spills, and energy infrastructure damage from hurricanes), have repeatedly intensified the debate. [...] Substantively, a number of issues have been raised. Development advocates assert that: 1. ANWR oil would reduce U.S. energy markets' exposure to Middle East crises, lower oil prices, and extend the economic life of the Trans Alaska Pipeline; 2. development would create jobs in Alaska and elsewhere in the United States; and 3. ANWR oil could be developed with minimal environmental harm; some argue that surface development could be limited to a fraction of leased acres." However, on the opposing side, "[w]ilderness advocates counter that: 1. intrusion on this ecosystem cannot be justified on any terms; 2. economically recoverable oil found (if any) would provide little energy security and could be replaced by cost-effective alternatives; 3. ANWR production would have negligible effect on oil prices; 4. job claims are exaggerated; and 5. development would be widely scattered, with irreparable impacts. This primer provides background for analyzing the various claims through an examination of ANWR's history, and an analysis of its geological, biological, human, and economic resources."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Alexander, Kristina; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Ratner, Michael

  2012-02-14
• Avian Influenza in Poultry and Wild Birds [Updated March 29, 2007]

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  "Avian influenza is a viral disease that primarily infects birds, both domestic and wild. Certain strains of bird flu break the avian barrier and have been known to infect other animals and humans. Avian flu viruses are common among wild bird populations, which act as a reservoir for the disease. While rarely fatal in wild birds, avian flu is highly contagious and often fatal in domestic poultry, prompting strict biosecurity measures on farms. International trade restrictions imposed by countries to counter avian flu can have large economic effects. The H5N1 strain of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has spread throughout Asia since 2003, infecting mostly poultry, some wild birds, and a limited number of humans through close domestic poultry-to-human contact. The virus has spread beyond Asia, reaching Europe in 2005 and the Middle East and Africa in 2006. Over 250 million poultry have died or been destroyed internationally. Human mortality among the more than 275 people infected exceeds 55%. Fears that the virus could mutate to allow efficient human-to-human transmission and cause a human pandemic have prompted a massive political and public health response. Since wild birds can carry the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus, federal, state, and other agencies have increased surveillance of wild and migratory birds. Surveillance is particularly high in Alaska, where Asian and American flyways overlap."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Monke, James

  2007-03-29
• Global Climate Change and Wildlife [Updated February 12, 2007]

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  "Recently projected climate changes could have widespread effects on wildlife species. These effects may include extinctions, changes in species' ranges, mismatches in their phenologies (timing of pollination, flowering, etc.), and population declines. Other species could flourish in response to projected climate change. Effects of climate change on wildlife have been reported for some species and populations in localized areas. Many studies also show that climate change acts in concert with other variables to effect changes in species. If climate change is widespread, there is uncertainty on how wildlife will adapt. Some suggest that evolution and migration will enable species to adapt, whereas others contend that adaptation will be minimal because of limited habitat and changes in climate that may occur more rapidly than adaptation can respond."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Leggett, Jane A.

  2007-02-12
• Invasive Non-Native Species: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated November 25, 2002]

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  "For the first few centuries after the arrival of Europeans in North America, plants and animals of many species were sent between the two land masses. The transfer of non-natives consisted not only of intentional westbound species ranging from pigs to dandelions, but also intentional eastbound grey squirrels and tomatoes. And for those centuries the remaining non-native species crossing the Atlantic uninvited and often unwelcome, were ignored if they were noticed at all. National focus on non-native species arose in the 19th Century, primarily over losses in agriculture (due to weeds or plant diseases), the leading industry of the time. A few newly-arrived non-natives, and new estimates of adverse economic impacts exceeding $100 billion annually, have sharpened that focus. Very broadly, the unanswered question regarding non-native species is whose responsibility is it to ensure economic integrity and ecological stability in response to the actual or potential impacts of non-native species? As this report shows, the current answer is not simple, and may be "no one." It may depend on answers to many other questions: Is the introduction deliberate or accidental? Does it affect agriculture? By what pathway does it arrive? Is the potential harm from the species already known? Is the species already established in one area of the country? Finally, if the answers to any of these questions are unsatisfactory, what changes should be made?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rawson, Jean M.; Buck, Eugene H.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2002-11-25
• Endangered Species Act and 'Sound Science' [September 27, 2007]

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  "The adequacy of the science supporting implementation of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) is receiving increased congressional attention. While some critics accuse agencies responsible for implementing the ESA of using 'junk science,' others counter that decisions that should rest on science are instead being dictated by political concerns. Under the ESA, certain species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) are listed as either 'endangered' or 'threatened' according to assessments of the risk of their extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to protect the species and its habitat. Efforts to list, protect, and recover threatened or endangered species under the ESA can be controversial. Some of this controversy stems from the substantive provisions of this law, which can affect the use of both federal and nonfederal lands. The scientific underpinnings of decisions under the ESA are especially important, given their importance for species and their possible impacts on land use and development. […] Several bills affecting science as used in the ESA have been introduced in recent Congresses, but to date none have been enacted. Legislative activity in the 109th Congress is summarized in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33468, 'The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices'. This report provides a context for evaluating legislative proposals through examples of how science has been used in selected cases, a discussion of the nature and role of science in general, and its role in the ESA process in particular, together with general and agency information quality requirements and policies, and a review of how the courts have viewed agency use of science. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buck, Eugene H.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Baldwin, Pamela

  2007-09-27
• Biotechnology, Indigenous Peoples, and Intellectual Property Rights [April 16, 1993]

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  "Plant and animal species are estimated to become extinct as a result of natural processes at a rate of one to ten species a year. But human activities and the destruction of habitat are calculated to increase the extinction rate to 10,000-150,000 species a year. This process threatens the gene pool base that is important for food crops, undermines ecological balance, raises moral concerns about humankind's relationship with other species, adversely affects the development of new products useful to the modern world, and causes the demise of indigenous peoples dependent upon their immediate habitat. Several decades ago pharmaceutical companies and government research agencies devoted substantial efforts to screening plants and animals for useful medicinal properties. But the lack of widespread success and government budget cuts led to a decline in biodiversity screening in the 1970s in favor of efforts to synthesize new drugs in the laboratory. Now there has been a resurgence of interest in biodiversity screening. That resurgence has also been accompanied by a concern in some quarters to involve indigenous peoples in the screening process. […] Developing countries that host most indigenous peoples have generally subordinated protection for intellectual property to concerns about rapid economic development. The rights of indigenous peoples are as yet ill-defined. Existing and proposed international agreements pertaining to intellectual property provide little support for the notion. And the requirements of U.S. patent law that an invention be novel, useful, non-obvious, and not be a product of nature appear to be insuperable obstacles to any domestic protection for such knowledge."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Axt, Josephine R.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Ackerman, David M.

  1993-04-16
• Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices [November 9, 2006]

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  "The 109th Congress is considering proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act (ESA; P.L. 93-205, 16 U.S.C. §§1531-1543). Major issues in recent years have included changing the role of science in decision-making, modifying critical habitat (CH) procedures, incorporating further protection and incentives for property owners, and increasing protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated enacting as law some ESA regulations promulgated during the Clinton Administration. The ESA has been one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and nonfederal lands and resources. Under the ESA, species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) can be listed as 'endangered or threatened' according to assessments of their risk of extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid its recovery and protect its habitat. The ESA may also be controversial because dwindling species are usually harbingers of broader ecosystem decline: the most common cause of listing species is habitat loss. […] This report identifies additional bills that have been introduced in the 109th Congress to address specific concerns related to how the ESA is implemented and how endangered species are managed, and will be updated periodically to reflect legislative action."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buck, Eugene H.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Sheikh, Pervaze A.

  2006-11-09
• Arctic Petroleum Technology Developments [January 23, 2006]

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  "Congressional debate over opening the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) on a portion of the North Slope of Alaska to petroleum exploration and development is under way in the 109th Congress. Current law prohibits such development in ANWR. The North Slope is home to the two largest oil fields in North America and to the largest U.S. oil field discovered in the last decade. The North Slope also is home to a diverse, unique, and fragile ecosystem -- resulting in extensive federal, state, and local regulatory protection. Partly due to increased restrictions since the discovery of Prudhoe Bay, operators have developed less environmentally intrusive ways to recover arctic oil, primarily through innovations in several types of technology. […] Proponents of opening ANWR to energy development maintain that these technologies substantially mitigate the effects on the environment of oil and gas operations, and assert that the increase in domestically-produced energy would be worth any minimal environmental impacts. Opponents counter that a facility of any size would still be an industrial site and an intrusion on the ecosystem, and argue that the need for gravel and scarce water, the permanent roads, ports, and airstrips that would follow, and the unknown number of spills would destroy vegetation, contaminate water resources, and interfere with wildlife."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2006-01-23
• Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 110th Congress: Conglicting Values and Difficult Choices [September 19, 2007]

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  "The 110th Congress is likely to oversee implementation and funding of the Endangered Species Act (ESA; P.L. 93-205, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1543) and to consider proposals to amend the act. Major issues in recent years have included the role of science in decision-making, critical habitat (CH) designation and procedures, protection by and incentives for property owners, and appropriate protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated enacting as law some ESA regulations promulgated during the Clinton Administration. […] Proponents of modifying ESA argued that their proposed changes would have made ESA more effective by redefining the relationship between private and public property uses and species protection, implementing new incentives for species conservation, and removing what some see as undue land use restrictions. However, critics argued that the proposed changes would have created gaps in the ESA safety net of protections and prohibitions. In the 110th Congress, S. 658 proposes modifications to the ESA provisions regarding species listing and delisting as well as those related to recovery planning, while S. 700 and H.R. 1422 would provide a tax credit to individuals who enter into agreements to protect habitat for endangered and threatened species. This report will identify and discuss oversight issues and legislation introduced in the 110th Congress to address specific concerns related to how ESA is implemented and how endangered species are managed, and will be updated periodically to reflect legislative action."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buck, Eugene H.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Sheikh, Pervaze A.

  2007-09-19
• Avian Influenza in Poultry and Wild Birds [January 12, 2007]

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  "Avian influenza is a viral disease that primarily infects birds, both domestic and wild. Certain strains of bird flu break the avian barrier and have been known to infect other animals and humans. Avian flu viruses are common among wild bird populations, which act as a reservoir for the disease. While rarely fatal in wild birds, avian flu is highly contagious and often fatal in domestic poultry, prompting strict biosecurity measures on farms. International trade restrictions imposed by countries to counter avian flu can have large economic effects. A strain of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) has spread throughout Asia since 2003, infecting mostly poultry, some wild birds, and a limited number of humans through close domestic poultry-to-human contact. The virus has also spread beyond Asia, reaching Europe in 2005 and the Middle East and Africa in early 2006. Over 250 million poultry have died or been destroyed internationally. The human mortality rate among the more than 250 people infected exceeds 50%. Fears that the virus could mutate to allow efficient human-to-human transmission and cause a human pandemic have prompted a massive political and public health response…Congressional agriculture committees have held hearings on avian influenza preparedness, and appropriators have increased funding for surveillance and other preparedness activities for poultry and wild birds."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Monke, James; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2007-01-12
• Compensating State and Local Governments for the Tax-Exempt Status of Federal Lands: What is Fair and Consistent? [March 22, 2012]

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  "The federal government owns significant amounts of land and resources that are exempt from state and local taxation. State and local governments provide a wide variety of services-- education, social services, public safety, transportation facilities, utilities, and much more. These services are funded through intergovernmental transfers (federal grants to state governments and federal and state grants to local governments), user fees, and state and local levied taxation-- property taxes, income taxes, sales and use taxes, excise taxes, severance taxes, and more. Congress has established programs to compensate state and local governments for the tax-exempt status of federal lands. Some propose that 'fair' compensation would provide payments that are equivalent to the taxes that would be paid if the lands were privately owned. Assessing such tax equivalency, however, is difficult because of the substantial variability in state and local reliance on and rates for the various types of taxes. Others suggest that 'fair' compensation would provide payments that offset the costs imposed on state and local governments from the federal lands, although this would exclude payments for governmental services that are not paid by the beneficiaries (e.g., social services). Providing consistent payments is a challenge; permanent appropriations are the most stable, but are difficult to establish and create permanent obligations. Finally, which lands to include for federal payments may seem straightforward, but lack of precise data on the federal lands might compromise accuracy of payments, and federal responsibility for tax-exempt Indian lands is unclear."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gorte, Ross W.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2012-03-22
• Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 110th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices [Updated January 16, 2007]

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  "Increasing numbers of animal and plant species face possible extinction. Endangered and threatened species -- and the law that protects them, the 1973 Endangered Species Act (ESA, 16 U.S.C. §§1531, et seq.) -- are controversial, in part, because dwindling species are often harbingers of resource scarcity. The most common cause of species' decline is habitat loss or alteration. Habitat loss occurs due to development, changes in land management practices, competition from invasive species, and other factors, nearly all related to economic, political, or social interests. ESA has been among the most contentious environmental laws, because of its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and nonfederal lands and resources. Congress faces the issue of how to balance these interests (which may fall on various sides of any given species controversy) with the protection of endangered and threatened species and, as stated in ESA, 'the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend.' Because of strong support and strong opposition to the ESA, comprehensive endangered species legislation has not been reauthorized since the last ESA authorization expired in 1992. Instead, congressional efforts have focused on addressing some controversial features of ESA. There were several attempts to enact comprehensive legislation that would have reauthorized the ESA in the 109th Congress. These attempts are less likely in the 110th Congress. Congress may shift to considering issues for oversight such as the science used for making decisions and designation of critical habitat. Further, Congress may also address issues related to the implementation and funding of the ESA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buck, Eugene H.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Sheikh, Pervaze A. . . .

  2007-01-16
• Forest Service Payments to Counties- Title I of the Federal Forests County Revenue, Schools, and Jobs Act of 2012: Issues for Congress [March 26, 2012]

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  "Since 1908, the Forest Service (USFS) in the Department of Agriculture has paid 25% of its receipts to the states for use on roads and schools in the counties where the national forests are located. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in the Department of the Interior has paid 50% of its receipts to the Oregon counties where the revested (returned to federal ownership) Oregon and California Railroad (O&C) grant lands are located. Payments under these programs dropped substantially in the 1990s, largely because of declining timber sales. In the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-393; SRS), Congress created an optional alternative payment system for these lands, but the law expired at the end of FY2011. The 112th Congress has considered options for addressing the lower payments from federal lands due to lower timber sales. One bill, H.R. 4019 (Title I, the County, Schools, and Revenue Trust for Federal Forest Land), would establish a new payment program; the House Committee on Natural Resources has ordered the bill reported. The bill would establish the trust with receipts from certain projects, and give the USFS [U.S. Forest Service] the "fiduciary responsibility" to undertake projects to achieve annual revenue requirements in counties that do not opt out of the trust program. The bill would direct the USFS to calculate the revenue requirements and, to implement trust projects, establish procedures for public involvement, environmental reporting, and judicial review. The bill also would direct the allocation and use of the trust payments, and provide appropriations for the payments until trust projects generated receipts for the trust payments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Alexander, Kristina

  2012-03-26
• Global Climate Change and Wildlife [February 6, 2007]

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  "Recently projected climate changes could have widespread effects on wildlife species. These effects may include extinctions, changes in species' ranges, mismatches in their phenology (timing of pollination, flowering, etc.), and population declines. Other species could flourish in response to projected climate change. Effects of climate change on wildlife have been reported for some species and populations in localized areas. Many studies also show that climate change acts in concert with other variables to effect changes in species. If climate change is widespread, there is uncertainty on how wildlife will adapt. Some suggest that evolution and migration will enable species to adapt, whereas others contend that adaptation will be minimal because of limited habitat and that changes in climate may occur more rapidly than adaptation can respond to."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Leggett, Jane A. . . .

  2007-02-06
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated December 16, 2005]

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  "One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, further increases in 2004-2005, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. The FY2006 Budget Resolution (H.Con.Res. 95, H.Rept. 109-62) required that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult without including ANWR legislation. On October 19, 2005, the Senate Committee reported its title for reconciliation (S. 1932) to the Senate Budget Committee. The Committee's title would open ANWR; supporters designed it to meet the savings target and Senate procedural restrictions on matters included in reconciliation bills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2005-12-16
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated July 7, 2006]

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  "One part of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological, recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in energy prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, more price increases in 2004-2006, and energy infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law prohibits oil and gas leasing in the Refuge. In the first session of the 109th Congress, development advocates added ANWR development to the conference report for the Defense appropriations bill (H.R. 2863). The House passed the conference report with the ANWR provision, but the ANWR title was removed from the bill (P.L. 109-148) after failure of a cloture motion in the Senate. In the second session, on March 16, 2006, the Senate passed S.Con.Res. 83, the FY2007 budget resolution. Its sole reconciliation instruction was to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, and it assumed revenues from leasing in ANWR. On May 25, 2006, the House passed the American-Made Energy and Good Jobs Act (H.R. 5429), which would open ANWR to development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

  2006-07-06
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 108th Congress [Updated January 13, 2004]

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  "One major element of the energy debate in the 108th Congress is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in prices of gasoline and natural gas from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and further increases in 2003, have renewed the ANWR debate for the first time in 7 years; however, its development has been debated for over 40 years. Few U.S. locations onshore stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. The first key vote in the 108th Congress came in the Senate. On March 19, the Senate passed an amendment by Senator Boxer to strip language from the Senate Budget Resolution that would have facilitated subsequent passage of ANWR development legislation. The second group of votes came April 10 in the House on the way to passage of a comprehensive energy bill (H.R. 6). The House adopted an amendment by Representative Wilson (NM) to limit certain features of federal leasing development to no more than 2,000 acres. It rejected an amendment by Representative Markey to delete ANWR development from the bill. The Senate passed its version of H.R. 6 by adopting the provisions of the Senate's version of omnibus energy legislation from the 107th Congress. The Senate version contained no provision to open the Refuge to development. The conference committee did not include ANWR development in the conference report. Many observers feel that passage of ANWR development legislation in the remainder of the 108th Congress is now unlikely. If Congress does not act, the status quo, which prohibits development unless Congress acts, will continue."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

  2004-01-13
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated July 15, 2005]

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  "One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources, along with its recreational and subsistence values. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and increases again in 2004-2005, have renewed the ANWR debate; however, its development has been debated for more than 40 years. Few onshore U.S. locations stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. On April 20, 2005, the House rejected the Markey/Johnson amendment (H.Amdt. 73) to strike the ANWR title from H.R. 6, the omnibus energy bill, which passed the House passed on April 22. The Senate version of H.R. 6 contained no ANWR title. On March 16, 2005, the Senate rejected the Cantwell amendment (striking language related to ANWR development, S.Amdt. 168, yeas 49, nays 51, Roll Call #52) to S.Con.Res. 18, the Senate budget resolution. The amendment would have struck §102(a)(4) instructing the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. As a result, development proponents may be able to include ANWR development in a reconciliation bill, since reconciliation bills are not subject to filibusters. In the end, the House and Senate approved a requirement that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult to meet without passing ANWR legislation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

  2005-07-15
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "One major element of the energy debate in the 109th Congress is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources, along with its recreational and subsistence values. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in prices of gasoline and natural gas from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and increases again in 2004- 2005, have renewed the ANWR debate; however, its development has been debated for more than 40 years. Few onshore U.S. locations stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. On March 9, 2005, the House Budget Committee ordered the FY2006 budget resolution (number not yet available) to be reported; the measure did not contain assumptions regarding ANWR revenues. A day later, the Senate Budget Committee ordered S.Con.Res. 18 to be reported. Its version of the resolution contained instructions to the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources that assumed revenues from the sale of ANWR leases."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2005-03-11
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated January 31, 2006]

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  "One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, further increases in 2004-2005, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids oil and gas leasing in the Refuge. The FY2006 Budget Resolution (H.Con.Res. 95, H.Rept. 109-62) required that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult without including ANWR legislation. The Senate Budget Committee reported a title in S. 1932 (reconciliation) to open ANWR; supporters designed it to meet the savings target and Senate procedural restrictions on matters included in reconciliation bills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2006-01-31
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated January 26, 2006]

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  "One major element of the energy debate is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological recreational, and subsistence values. ANWR is rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Its development has been debated for over 40 years, but sharp increases in gasoline and natural gas prices from late 2000 to early 2001, terrorist attacks, further increases in 2004-2005, and infrastructure damage from hurricanes have intensified the debate. Few onshore U.S. areas stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. The FY2006 Budget Resolution (H.Con.Res. 95, H.Rept. 109-62) required that the House Resources and Senate Energy Committees achieve savings targets that would be difficult without including ANWR legislation. The Senate Budget Committee reported a title in S. 1932 (reconciliation) to open ANWR; supporters designed it to meet the savings target and Senate procedural restrictions on matters included in reconciliation bills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Gelb, Bernard A.; Baldwin, Pamela

  2006-01-26