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Fukushima Nuclear Crisis [April 4, 2011]

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This report is an update to earlier Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports entitled "Fukushima Nuclear Crisis" and bearing the report number "R41694". The first was released on March 15, 2011 and the second is dated March 24, 2011. This release provides status updates on the six units at the Fukushima Daiichi plant with the greatest emphasis on the four co-located reactors which were in operation at the moment of the earthquake and resulting tsunami.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Campbell, Richard J.

2011-04-04
Fukushima Nuclear Crisis [March 24, 2011]

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"The earthquake on March 11, 2011, off the east coast of Honshu, Japan's largest island, reportedly caused an automatic shutdown of eleven of Japan's fifty-five operating nuclear power plants. Most of the shutdowns proceeded without incident. However, the plants closest to the epicenter, Fukushima and Onagawa (see Figure 1), were damaged by the earthquake and resulting tsunami. The Fukushima Daiichi plant subsequently suffered hydrogen explosions and probable nuclear fuel damage, releasing significant amounts of radioactive material into the environment. Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) operates the Fukushima nuclear power complex in the Futaba district of Fukushima prefecture in Northern Japan, consisting of six nuclear units at the Daiichi station and four nuclear units at the Daini station. All the units at the Fukushima complex are boiling water reactors, with reactors 1 to 5 at the Daiichi site being the General Electric Mark I design (see Figure 2). The Fukushima Daiichi reactors entered commercial operation in the years from 1971 (reactor 1) to 1979 (reactor 6). At the time of the earthquake, reactors 1, 2, and 3 at Daiichi were operating and shut down after the quake, while reactors 4, 5, and 6 were already shut down for routine inspections. All four of the Daini reactors were operating at the time of the earthquake and taken down after the quake. Nuclear reactors produce power by fissioning (splitting) the nuclei of heavy isotopes, such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239, through the absorption of neutrons. Each fission event generates additional neutrons that induce more fission events, creating a continuous nuclear chain reaction. The heavy nuclei split into lighter isotopes called fission products, many of which are highly radioactive, such as iodine-129, iodine-131, strontium-90, and cesium-137. To shut down the nuclear chain reaction, neutron-absorbing control rods are inserted into the reactor core. However, even though the fission process has stopped, the fission products and other radioactive isotopes in the reactor core continue to generate significant heat through radioactive decay. Until the decay heat sufficiently diminishes, a source of electricity is needed to operate pumps and circulate water in the reactor. Under normal conditions, it would take a few days for a reactor core to cool down to a 'cold shutdown' state."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Holt, Mark; Campbell, Richard J.

2011-03-24
Fukushima Nuclear Crisis [March 15, 2011]

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"The earthquake on March 11, 2011, off the east coast of Honshu, Japan's largest island, reportedly caused an automatic shutdown (called a 'scram') of eleven of Japan's fifty-five operating nuclear power plants. [...] Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) operates the Fukushima nuclear power complex in the Futaba district of Fukushima prefecture in Northern Japan, consisting of six nuclear units at the Daiichi station and four nuclear units at the Daini station. All the units at the Fukushima complex are boiling water reactors with reactors 1 to 5 at the Daiichi site being the General Electric Mark I design (see Figure 2). The Fukushima Daiichi reactors entered commercial operations in the years from 1971 (reactor 1) to 1979 (reactor 6). At the time of the earthquake, reactors 1, 2, and 3 at Daiichi were operational and shut down after the quake, while reactors 4, 5, and 6 were already shut down for routine inspections. All four of the Daini reactors were operational at the time of the earthquake and taken down after the quake. Nuclear fuel rods in a reactor continue to produce heat when the reactor is shut down. To stop the nuclear reaction, control rods are inserted into the reactor. During the cool-down phase, a source of electricity is needed to operate pumps and circulate water in the reactor. Under normal conditions, it would take a few days for a reactor core to cool down to a 'cold shutdown' state. The magnitude 9.0 earthquake triggered a ten meter (33 foot) high tsunami which struck the coast, devastating much of the area and overtopping a six meter high sea wall at Fukushima Daiichi station. The station was cut off from Japan's national electricity grid. Diesel generators at the Daiichi station initially took over the power load but later failed. The tsunami flooded the backup diesel powered electric generators at the station, sweeping away the diesel fuel tanks, and knocking out the backup cooling capability for the station's nuclear reactors."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2011-03-15
China and the United States - A Comparison of Green Energy Programs and Policies [June 14, 2010]

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"Some argue that [unlike China] the United States does not have a comprehensive national policy in place for promotion of renewable energy technologies, with some observers saying that the higher costs of renewable electricity are not conducive to market adoption. However, the reasons for increasing the use of renewable energy are diverse, and include energy security, energy independence, cleaner air, and more recently anthropogenic climate change, sustainability concepts, and economic development [...] Pending legislation in the 111th Congress contains provisions which could serve to increase power generation from renewable energy by establishing market drivers (such as a national renewable electricity standard) which could catalyze U.S. renewable electricity development."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2010-06-14
Smart Grid and Cybersecurity-Regulatory Policy and Issues [June 15, 2011]

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"Electricity is vital to the commerce and daily functioning of United States. The modernization of the grid to accommodate today's uses is leading to the incorporation of information processing capabilities for power system controls and operations monitoring. The 'Smart Grid' is the name given to the evolving electric power network as new information technology systems and capabilities are incorporated. While these new components may add to the ability to control power flows and enhance the efficiency of grid operations, they also potentially increase the susceptibility of the grid to cyber (i.e., computer-related) attack since they are built around microprocessor devices whose basic functions are controlled by software programming. The potential for a major disruption or widespread damage to the nation's power system from a large scale cyberattack has increased focus on the cybersecurity of the Smart Grid. […] The electricity grid is connected to (and largely dependent on) the natural gas pipeline, water supply, and telecommunications systems. Technologies being developed for use by the Smart Grid could also be used by these industries. Consideration could be given to applying similar control system device and system safeguards to these other critical utility systems."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2011-06-15
Weather-Related Power Outages and Electric System Resiliency [August 28, 2012]

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"High winds, especially when combined with precipitation from seasonal storms, can cause damage to electricity utility systems, resulting in service interruptions to large numbers of electricity customers. While most such power outages are caused by damage from trees and tree limbs falling on local electricity distribution lines and poles, major power outages tend to be caused by damage to electricity transmission lines, which carry bulk power long distances. Depending on the severity of the storm and resulting impairment, power outages can last a few hours or extend to periods of several days, and have real economic effects. Power outages can impact businesses (primarily through lost orders and damage to perishable goods and inventories), and manufacturers (mainly through downtime and lost production, or equipment damage). Data from various studies lead to cost estimates from storm-related outages to the U.S. economy at between $20 billion and $55 billion annually. Data also suggest the trend of outages from weather-related events is increasing."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2012-08-28
Regulatory Incentives for Electricity Transmissions-Issues and Cost Concerns [October 28, 2011]

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"Following the August 14, 2003, electric grid blackout which affected large portions of the Northeast United States and Ontario, Canada, Congress acted to promote investment in the nation's electrical grid to increase the system's capacity and efficiency. Inadequacies of an antiquated transmission system were blamed for the 2003 blackout. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) (EPACT) directed the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) to hold a rulemaking on incentive rates for construction of critical electric transmission infrastructure 'for the purpose of benefitting consumers by ensuring reliability and reducing the cost of delivered power by reducing transmission congestion.' The Final Rule was issued in July 2006 with FERC Order No. 679, 'Promoting Transmission Investment through Pricing Reform.' EPACT Section 219 stipulates that 'all rates, charges, terms, and conditions be just and reasonable, and not unduly discriminatory or preferential.' […] FERC may or may not revisit this decision as a result of its consideration of comments submitted to the NOI [Notice of Inquiry]. Expectations have been raised as to the large dollar investment possible over the next two decades in transmission systems alone, with one estimate from the electricity industry suggesting $298 billion will be required to meet future electricity demand. However, with the concerns raised over the effects of transmission incentives on consumer rates (especially incentives granting higher ROE [return-on-equity] incentives to applicants), implications of related federal policies on the electric power sector, additional FERC regulatory policies for transmission, and the aging of electricity infrastructure among key issues, the need for continuing transmission incentives may be a matter for Congress to consider."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2011-10-28
Electricity Transmission Cost Allocation [September 7, 2011]

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"Perhaps the most contentious electricity transmission financing issue is cost allocation for new interstate transmission lines--that is, deciding which electricity customers pay how much of the cost of building and operating a new transmission line that crosses several states. This report provides background and analysis of current transmission cost allocation policy and issues. For many years, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) declined to go beyond establishing general principles as set forth in its Order No. 890, which addressed 'undue discrimination and preference' in the providing of transmission services. Transmission cost allocation proposals made by transmission service providers were therefore reviewed by FERC to ensure compliance with the general principles outlined in Order No. 890 and the Federal Power Act (FPA). However, there were calls for FERC to provide a clearer framework for cost allocation. The decision of the Seventh Circuit in 'Illinois Commerce Commission v. FERC', to reject a cost allocation plan approved by FERC which would have permitted 'socialization' of the costs for some new transmission projects (i.e., allowing the costs to be spread widely among ratepayers in the PJM Interconnection, even those who do not substantially or clearly benefit from a project) encouraged FERC to seek more clarity with respect to cost allocation. Congress also entered the fray in the form of legislative proposals that would amend the Federal Power Act to include new transmission cost allocation guidelines that FERC would be required to follow. […] The Final Order comes as state renewable portfolio standards and the upcoming U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations for coal power plants may drive demand for new transmission lines. The uncertainty regarding the implications for generation resources of upcoming EPA regulations has caused some utilities to delay decisions on building new generation, with plans to satisfy (at least interim) power needs from power markets until the regulatory clarity they seek is provided. This report analyzes recent developments concerning transmission cost allocation leading up to Order No. 1000, as well as the contents of the order and their potential impact on the transmission planning process in the future. FERC acknowledges that some key questions may only be answered in the compliance filing process."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.; Vann, Adam

2011-09-07
Electricity Transmission Cost Allocation [December 18, 2012]

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"Perhaps the most contentious electricity transmission financing issue is cost allocation for new interstate transmission lines--that is, deciding which electricity customers pay how much of the cost of building and operating a new transmission line that crosses several states. This report provides background and analysis of current transmission cost allocation policy and issues. […] This report analyzes recent developments concerning transmission cost allocation leading up to Order No. 1000, as well as the contents of the order and their potential impact on the transmission planning process in the future. FERC [Federal Energy Regulatory Commission] acknowledges that some key questions may only be answered in the compliance filing process."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.; Vann, Adam

2012-12-18
Electrical Power: Overview of Congressional Issues [January 30, 2013]

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"The electric power industry is in the process of transformation. The electricity infrastructure of the United States is aging, and uncertainty exists around how to modernize the grid, and what technologies and fuels will be used to produce electricity in the future. Congress will likely be faced with policy issues regarding how the modernization of this vital industry will unfold. […] Upgrading the nation's transmission system to accommodate current and future uses, and ensuring the reliable functioning and the security of the grid, has been a major concern for the federal government. Federal law has already tasked the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission with responsibility for enforcing reliability standards for the bulk electric system, including cybersecurity, but protection from natural hazards continues as a key issue. The recent damage sustained to the electrical grid by Hurricane Sandy in New York and New Jersey and difficulty in restoring electricity service underscore the age and fragility of the power system, and how electricity service might benefit from hardening and modernization of various power systems. Growing concerns over greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, other environmental costs associated with burning fossil fuels, and existing or anticipated state and federal policies addressing these issues are leading some utilities and energy providers to deploy more renewable energy technologies to meet power demands, and potentially increasing the need for new transmission lines to incorporate clean energy sources."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2013-01-30
Prospects for Coal in Electric Power and Industry [February 4, 2013]

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"For most of the twentieth century, the primary use of coal in the United States was for electric power generation, and for most of the history of power generation in the United States, coal has been the dominant fuel used to produce electricity. Even as recently as 2011, coal was the fuel used for almost 42% of power generation in the United States accounting for 93% of coal use. Industrial uses represented the remaining 7%. However, in April 2012, coal's share of the power generation market dropped to about 32% (according to Energy Information Administration statistics), equal to that of natural gas. Coal was the fuel of choice because of its availability and the relatively low cost of producing electricity in large, coal-burning power plants which took advantage of coal's low-priced, high energy content to employ economies of scale in steam-electric production. However, coal use for power generation seems to be on the decline, and the magnitude of coal's role for power generation is in question. Two major reasons are generally seen as being responsible: the expectation of a dramatic rise in natural gas supplies, and the impact of environmental regulations on an aging base of coal-fired power plants."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Brown, Phillip (Specialist in Energy Policy)

2013-02-04
China and the United States-A Comparison of Green Energy Programs and Policies [April 30, 2014]

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"China is the world's most populous country with approximately 1.4 billion people. It has experienced tremendous economic growth over the last three decades with an average annual increase in gross domestic product (GDP) of 9.8% during that period. This rapid economic growth has led to an increasing demand for energy, spurring China to more than double its electric power generating capacity in each of the last three decades, growing from 66 GigaWatts (GW) installed in 1980 to 1,100 GW installed as of 2011. […] China has ambitious targets for developing both its hydropower and non-hydropower renewable energy resources with a major push of laws, regulations and incentives in the last few years. Development of large- and medium-sized hydropower projects had previously been at a standstill with environmental impact and population displacement issues presenting major obstacles. The wind power sector is illustrative of China's accomplishments, as installed wind power capacity has gone from 567 MegaWatts (MW) in 2003 to 75,000 MW in 2012. Developing its domestic renewable energy resources also provides a growth opportunity for China's domestic renewable energy technology industries, and serves to increase its domestic manufacturing capabilities. This report will look at the laws, programs, and policies encouraging development of wind, solar, hydropower, and biomass power in the China and the United States as the major renewable electricity technologies common to both countries."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2014-04-30
Customer Choice and the Power Industry of the Future [September 22, 2014]

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"In the United States, the modern electric utility industry began to emerge about 100 years ago, guided by a philosophy which came to be called the 'regulatory compact.' Under the compact, state and local governments generally granted the right to provide electric power in a designated service territory, in exchange for an obligation to serve all electric power customers. Much of the nation's power generation and delivery infrastructure was built under this arrangement, with customers ultimately paying for the costs of electricity services. However, the electric utility model nowadays is under pressure as the industry deals with issues such as the aging of power generation assets, the implementation of new environmental regulations favoring cleaner, low carbon emission power generation choices, and the development of technologies providing options for customers to self-generate electric power. Some observers argue that new technologies are leading to a distributed generation (DG) future for customers, supported by utility base load generation and infrastructure. Various states and jurisdictions have begun initiatives to look at what a new 'regulatory compact' could specifically encompass, with cleaner electric power and new services as the driving force behind utility investments."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2014-09-22
Cybersecurity Issues for the Bulk Power System [June 10, 2015]

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"In the United States, it is generally taken for granted that the electricity needed to power the U.S. economy is available on demand and will always be available to power our machines and devices. However, in recent years, new threats have materialized as new vulnerabilities have come to light, and a number of major concerns have emerged about the resilience and security of the nation's electric power system. In particular, the cybersecurity of the electricity grid has been a focus of recent efforts to protect the integrity of the electric power system. The increasing frequency of cyber intrusions on industrial control (IC) systems of critical infrastructure continues to be a concern to the electric power sector. Power production and flows on the nation's electricity grid are controlled remotely by a number of IC technologies. The National Security Agency (NSA) reported that it has seen intrusions into IC systems by entities with the apparent technical capability 'to take down control systems that operate U.S. power grids, water systems and other critical infrastructure.' […] This report highlights several areas for congressional consideration to improve grid cybersecurity. One issue is whether electric utilities have the resources to make the financial investment and recruit staff to reduce vulnerabilities. Another issue is that NERC CIP standards do not apply to all points of grid connection to the distribution system, and these connections still may represent cyber vulnerabilities. The adequacy of current standards where they do apply is also an issue."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2015-06-10
Powering Africa: Challenges of and U.S. Aid for Electrification in Africa [August 17, 2015]

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"The largest infrastructure deficit in sub-Saharan Africa, a region mostly made up of low income developing countries, is in the power sector, according to the World Bank. Rates of access to electricity in Africa are very low by global standards, notably in rural areas. About 57% of Africans, or about 621 million people, lack access to electricity (also referred to as 'power' in this report). Whether measured in terms of generation and distribution capacity, electricity consumption, or security of supply, Africa's power sector delivers a fraction of the service needed or found elsewhere in the developing world. Power consumption is a tenth of that found elsewhere in the developing world, and per capita access is gradually falling, because new power infrastructure construction has not kept up with growing populations and electricity demands. The contrast between Africa and the developed world with respect to power capacities is particularly stark. Africa has a generation capacity of about 106 megawatts (MW) per million people, while that of the United States was about 3,320 megawatts MW per million people The lack of power constrains development in the region in multiple ways: It limits economic production, growth, and commerce; undermines human resource development and hinders improved quality of life potentials; and limits the quality of social services and public safety. It also spurs the use of alternative, often highly polluting biomass energy sources (e.g., wood and charcoal) for cooking and lighting. Estimates of African power requirements and the corresponding need for financing vary widely, but are invariably high. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) reports that about $15 to $20 billion in annual investment through 2030 may be needed to achieve universal access to electricity, a figure roughly in line with a 2012 International Energy Agency (IEA) estimate."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Cook, Nicolas; Campbell, Richard J.; Brown, Phillip (Specialist in Energy Policy) . . .

2015-08-17
EPA's Clean Power Plan: Implications for the Electric Power Sector [November 5, 2015]

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"On October 23, 2015, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released the final version of regulations to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from existing power plants (also referred to as electric generating units or EGUs by EPA). [...] When implemented, EPA projects the state plans will reduce CO2 emissions from U.S. power generation approximately 32% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. [...] Going forward, EPA's GHG regulations may provide a basis for the evolution of the U.S. electric power sector. EPA has based the CPP [Clean Power Plan] on increasing renewables as the technology of choice for new power generation. EPA declares in the CPP that states and affected EGUs can essentially use whatever methods they choose to meet CO2 emissions and emission-rate reductions in timeframes proposed, and in so doing, creates a plan it believes most states and affected EGUs may be able to comply with in the timeframe allowed. The overall costs of CPP compliance will not begin to be known until after state compliance plans are filed and implemented."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2015-11-05
Tesla's Home Battery-An Electricity Storage Breakthrough? [May 4, 2015]

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"Cost-effective electricity storage has long been a kind of 'Holy Grail' for the electric power sector. Such storage technology could have multiple benefits for electricity consumers. It can serve as a temporary source of backup power to maintain onsite electric service in the event of a utility power blackout. It can be used to improve the availability of ('firm up') electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources such as solar and wind. It can also be used to shift end-user electricity loads from costly peak hours to lower cost off-peak hours, which can level regional generation profiles and lower customer electric bills. In pursuit of these benefits, many electricity storage solutions have been developed, and some have become commercially available--primarily at utility scale--but high costs and performance issues (along with key regulatory barriers) have limited their deployment. (See CRS Report R42455, Energy Storage for Power Grids and Electric Transportation: A Technology Assessment.) For example, banks of lead-acid batteries have been used to firm up generation from some renewable power installations. However, the economics and environmental characteristics of these batteries are unlikely to provide a long-term answer. Lithium ion batteries, another mature technology, have a better energy density and higher cycle life compared to lead-acid batteries, but they are much more expensive to manufacture. Other advanced battery technologies and kinetic and chemical-based energy storage systems are also being pursued."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.; Parfomak, Paul W.

2015-05-04
Increasing the Efficiency of Existing Coal-Fired Power Plants [December 20, 2013]

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"Coal has long been the major fossil fuel used to produce electricity. However, coal-fired electric power plants are one of the largest sources of air pollution in the United States, with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from burning of fossil fuels believed to be the major contributor to global climate change. Regulations under development at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would impose new requirements on fossil-fueled (mostly coal-fired) power plants (CFPPs) to control GHG emissions. The first of these requirements was issued in September 2013 with proposed standards for the control of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from new electric generating units burning fossil fuels. EPA's proposals for control of GHG emissions from existing power plants are expected by June 2014, with many options under consideration. EPA may target emissions on a state or plant-by-plant basis, with companies likely given choices for compliance. Within such a system, efficiency improvements can be an important contributor. The overall efficiency of a power plant encompasses the efficiency of the various components of a generating unit. Minimizing heat losses is the greatest factor affecting the loss of CFPP efficiency, and there are many areas of potential heat losses in a power plant. Efficiency of older CFPPs becomes degraded over time, and lower power plant efficiency results in more CO2 being emitted per unit of electricity generated. The options most often considered for increasing the efficiency of CFPPs include equipment refurbishment, plant upgrades, and improved operations and maintenance schedules."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2013-12-20
Vermont Utility Cybersecurity Alarm [January 3, 2017]

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"A [...] report in the 'Washington Post' stated that Russian hackers had penetrated the U.S. electricity grid, after malware said to be associated with a Russian hacking group was found on a Vermont utility company computer. However, a follow-up story in the 'Washington Post' quoted U.S. government sources as saying 'that the incident is not linked to any Russian government effort to target or hack the utility.' The cybersecurity alarm was raised after a joint report [...] by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) urged electric utilities to search their networks for signs of an infiltration linked to a Russian hacking operation (called the Grizzly Steppe) suspected in the hack of Democratic Party servers. [...] The report led an employee at the Burlington Electric Company in Vermont to check his Yahoo email account on his work laptop computer, finding suspicious internet activity. After the utility checked its systems, malware was found on the laptop, but the utility stated that the computer was not connected to the Vermont company's electric grid control system. Federal officials are reported to be still investigating the laptop computer, trying to ascertain how the malware got onto the laptop."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2017-01-03
Cross-Border Energy Trade in North America: Present and Potential [January 30, 2017]

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"The United States, Canada, and Mexico in many ways comprise one large, integrated market for energy commodities. Canada, for example, is the single largest foreign supplier of crude oil to the United States, and the United States is Canada's sole crude oil customer. Both Mexico and Canada are major buyers of petroleum products refined in the United States. A growing trade in natural gas produced in the United States is also increasingly important to the energy relationship among the three countries. Trade in the other energy commodities--electricity, natural gas liquids, and coal--is comparatively small, but regionally important. Altogether, the value of the energy trade between the United States and its North American neighbors exceeded $140 billion in 2015, with $100 billion in U.S. energy imports and over $40 billion in exports. The United States' energy trade relationships with Canada and Mexico are increasingly complex. They have been undergoing fundamental change in recent years--largely due to technological advancements in the petroleum and natural gas sectors creating new competition for energy supplies and new market interconnections."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parfomak, Paul W.; Campbell, Richard J.; Pirog, Robert L. . . .

2017-01-30
Electric Grid Cybersecurity [September 4, 2018]

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"Electricity generation is vital to the commerce and daily functioning of the United States. The U.S. electric power grid comprises all of the power plants generating electricity, together with the transmission and distribution lines and systems that bring power to end-use customers. The U.S. electric grid has operated historically with a high level of reliability; however, the various parts of the electric power system are all vulnerable to failure due to natural, operational, or man made events. The bulk power system faces new and evolving cybersecurity threats. Cyber threats can come from direct attacks aimed at electric grid or other critical infrastructure that could impact the operations or security of the grid. Arguably, the greatest cyber threats to the grid have been intrusions focused on manipulating industrial control system (ICS) networks. Cyber intrusions on the electric grid have resulted in malware on ICS networks with the capability of causing damage or taking over certain aspects of system control or functionality. Recent concerns have extended to Internet of Things (IoT) devices connected to networks. IoT devices have been increasingly targeted by botnet malware (whereby the hacker takes over the operation of a large number of infected devices) to launch denial-of-service or other cyberattacks. If such IoT cyberattacks were able to access electric utility ICS networks, they could potentially impair these systems or cause electric power networks to operate based on manipulated conditions or false information."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2018-09-04
Repair or Rebuild: Options for Electric Power in Puerto Rico [November 16, 2017]

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"On September 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 4 storm with sustained wind speeds of over 155 miles per hour. The hurricane also brought torrential rainfall with a range of 15 to 40 inches or more in some places, resulting in widespread flooding across the island. Puerto Rico's office of emergency management reported that the storm had incapacitated the central electric power system, leaving the entire island without power as the island's grid was essentially destroyed. [...] This report explores several alternative electric power structures to PREPA [Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority] for meeting the electricity services and needs of Puerto Rico. The ability of Puerto Rico and its citizens to assume the burden of paying for a rebuilt (and possibly restructured) electricity system is doubtful. Modernizing Puerto Rico's grid, and taking the next steps to incorporate resiliency, could be expensive. None of the options discussed provides a silver bullet solution to the issues of the grid in Puerto Rico. Congress may consider whether the efforts to restore electric power in Puerto Rico need to progress beyond simple restoration of electricity, and require new investment and oversight by the federal government."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.; Clark, Corrie E.; Austin, D. Andrew

2017-11-16
Potential Options for Electric Power Resiliency in the U.S. Virgin Islands [February 14, 2018]

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"In September of 2017, Hurricanes Irma and Maria, both Category 5 storms, caused catastrophic damage to the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), which include the main islands of Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas among other smaller islands and cays. Hurricane Irma hit the USVI on September 6 with the eye passing over St. Thomas and St. John. Fourteen days later, on September 20, the eye of Hurricane Maria swept near St. Croix with maximum winds of 175 mph. The USVI government estimates that total uninsured damage from the hurricanes will exceed $7.5 billion. Although the electric power plants fared 'relatively well' according to the local public water and power utility (the Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority (VIWAPA)), 80-90% of the power transmission and distribution systems across the USVI were damaged. In November 2017, the government of the USVI estimated that $850 million in hurricane recovery funding is needed to help 'rebuild a more resilient electrical system.' Before the 2017 hurricane season, VIWAPA was already challenged with fiscal problems and aging infrastructure. Although the USVI has never defaulted on its obligations, its fiscal problems include high debt levels, pension obligations, decreasing tax bases, and outdated infrastructures."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Clark, Corrie E.; Campbell, Richard J.; Austin, D. Andrew

2018-02-14
Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems: DOE Programs [August 28, 2017]

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"The Department of Energy (DOE) is the lead agency for the protection of electric power, oil, and natural gas infrastructure--cooperating with the Department of Homeland Security, the lead agency for pipelines. DOE's cybersecurity activities are led by its Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) and structured around three areas: (1) cybersecurity preparedness, (2) cyber incident response and recovery, and (3) research, development, and demonstration. Although nominally applicable to energy delivery systems across the electric power, oil and natural gas, and pipeline sectors, OE's cybersecurity activities to date appear to have been focused primarily on the grid. Publicly available examples of DOE-supported activities specifically focused on pipeline cybersecurity are limited. Rather, pipeline cybersecurity efforts appear to be included as part of broader national cybersecurity efforts."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parfomak, Paul W.; Jaikaran, Chris; Campbell, Richard J.

2017-08-28
Powering Africa: Challenges of and U.S. Aid for Electrification in Africa [September 14, 2015]

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"The largest infrastructure deficit in sub-Saharan Africa, a region mostly made up of low income developing countries, is in the power sector, according to the World Bank. Rates of access to electricity in Africa are very low by global standards, notably in rural areas. About 57% of Africans, or about 621 million people, lack access to electricity (also referred to as 'power' in this report). Whether measured in terms of generation and distribution capacity, electricity consumption, or security of supply, Africa's power sector delivers a fraction of the service needed or found elsewhere in the developing world. Power consumption is a tenth of that found elsewhere in the developing world, and per capita access is gradually falling, because new power infrastructure construction has not kept up with growing populations and electricity demands. The contrast between Africa and the developed world with respect to power capacities is particularly stark. Africa has a generation capacity of about 106 megawatts (MW) per million people, while that of the United States was about 3,320 megawatts MW per million people."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Cook, Nicolas; Campbell, Richard J.; Brown, Phillip (Specialist in Energy Policy) . . .

2015-09-14
E.O. 13920 and Bulk-Power System Supply Chain Security [June 5, 2020]

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From the Document: "On May 1, 2020, President Trump issued Executive Order (E.O.) 13920, titled 'Securing the United States Bulk-Power System.' The E.O. states that it is protecting 'the security, integrity, and reliability of bulk-power system electric equipment used in the United States' from 'foreign adversaries' who are creating and exploiting vulnerabilities in the bulk-power system (BPS). In the E.O., the President 'declared a national emergency with respect to the threat' to the U.S. bulk-power system, with the goal of limiting the acquisition or use of 'equipment designed, developed, manufactured, or supplied by' entities subject to the control of foreign adversaries."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2020-06-05
Smart Grid: Status and Outlook [April 10, 2018]

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"The electrical grid in the United States comprises all of the power plants generating electricity, together with the transmission and distribution lines and systems that bring power to end-use customers. The 'grid' also connects the many publicly and privately owned electric utility and power companies in different states and regions of the United States. However, with changes in federal law, regulatory changes, and the aging of the electric power infrastructure as drivers, the grid is changing from a largely patchwork system built to serve the needs of individual electric utility companies to essentially a national interconnected system, accommodating massive transfers of electrical energy among regions of the United States. The modernization of the grid to accommodate today's power flows, serve reliability needs, and meet future projected uses is leading to the incorporation of electronic intelligence capabilities for power control purposes and operations monitoring. The 'Smart Grid' is the name given to this evolving intelligent electric power network, with digital technologies increasingly replacing analog devices, thus enabling Smart Grid hardware and software functions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2018-04-10
Cross-Border Energy Trade in North America: Present and Potential [January 24, 2017]

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"The United States, Canada, and Mexico in many ways comprise one large, integrated market for energy commodities. [...] Altogether, the value of the energy trade between the United States and its North American neighbors exceeded $140 billion in 2015, with over $100 billion in U.S. energy imports and over $40 billion in exports. The United States' energy trade relationships with Canada and Mexico are increasingly complex. They have been undergoing fundamental change in recent years--largely due to technological advancements in the petroleum and natural gas sectors creating new competition for energy supplies and new market interconnections. Consequently, while energy policies in one country have inevitably affected the others, their cross-cutting effects in the future are difficult to predict. Nonetheless, a review of the recent trade data highlights several key market developments. [...] To date, Congress has favored a growing North American energy partnership--but ensuring that this partnership continues to be as mutually beneficial as possible will likely remain a key oversight challenge for the next decades. Congress has been facing important policy questions in the U.S.-Canada and U.S.-Mexico energy contexts on several fronts, including the siting of major cross-border pipelines, increasing petroleum supplies from Canadian oil sands, exporting natural gas production from United States' shales, and meeting commitments to increase renewable energy supplies and reduce atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases. Legislative proposals in the 115th Congress could directly influence these developments."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parfomak, Paul W.; Campbell, Richard J.; Pirog, Robert L. . . .

2017-01-24
Hurricanes and Electricity Infrastructure Hardening [September 20, 2017]

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"This Insight discusses the measures undertaken by electric utilities to prevent or mitigate power outages resulting from severe weather events. Power lines and transformers used to provide electricity to customers are particularly susceptible to damage due to their exposure to the elements. The loss of life and extensive damage seen so far in the 2017 hurricane season has refocused the attention of Congress on the destructive potential of such storms. High winds, rain, and coastal surges can combine to create floods which exacerbate damage from hurricanes. Other severe weather events such as ice storms can be equally as destructive as hurricanes and tropical storms, and can also affect entire U.S. regions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Campbell, Richard J.

2017-09-20
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority and Debt Restructuring Under PROMESA, P.L. 114-187 [August 08, 2017]

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"In recent years, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (CPR) has faced a fiscal crisis resulting from economic contraction, high public sector debt levels, outmigration, and other factors. In recent weeks, the finances of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA)--or in Spanish, the Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE)--have attracted specific attention. PREPA's debt--about $9 billion--is larger than that of any other operational U.S. public corporation. Planned actions to address the debt, and high electricity prices due to the deteriorating state of the island's generating and transmission infrastructure, may adversely affect its economic development prospects and the well-being of its residents. Moreover, the restructuring of PREPA could have wider implications for municipal finance and infrastructure policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Austin, D. Andrew; Campbell, Richard J.

2017-08-08

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