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U.S. Fossil Fuel Resources: Terminology, Reporting, and Summary [March 25, 2011]

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"Current discussions of U.S. and global energy supply refer to oil, natural gas, and coal using several terms that may be unfamiliar to some. The terms used to describe different types of fossil fuels have technically precise definitions, and misunderstanding or misuse of these terms may lead to errors and confusion in estimating energy available or making comparisons among fuels, regions, or nations. This report describes the characteristics of fossil fuels that make it necessary to use precise terminology, summarizes the major terms and their meanings, and provides a brief summary of the United States' endowment of fossil fuels and the relationship between the U.S. fossil fuel energy endowment and those of other nations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.; Whitney, Gene

2011-03-25
U.S. Energy: Overview and Key Statistics [April 4, 2011]

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"Energy supplies and prices are major economic factors in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. Thus, energy policy has been a recurring issue for Congress since the first major crisis in the 1970s. As an aid in policy making, this report presents a current and historical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. The historical trends show petroleum as the major source of energy, rising from about 38% in 1950 to 45% in 1975, then declining to about 40% in response to the energy crisis of the 1970s. Significantly, the transportation sector has been and continues to be almost completely dependent on petroleum, mostly gasoline. The importance of this dependence on the volatile world oil market was revealed over the past five years as perceptions of impending inability of the industry to meet increasing world demand led to relentless increases in the prices of oil and gasoline. With the downturn in the world economy and a consequent decline in consumption, prices collapsed, but then recovered to a much higher level than in the 1990s. As the world economy showed signs of recovery upward pressure on oil prices began to appear again. With the crisis in Libya and other Arab nations in the Spring of 2011, oil and gasoline prices began again to approach their former peak levels. Natural gas followed a long-term pattern of consumption similar to that of oil, at a lower level. Its share of total energy increased from about 17% in 1950 to more than 30% in 1970, then declined to about 20%. Recent development of large deposits of shale gas have increased the outlook for natural gas consumption in the near future. Consumption of coal in 1950 was 35% of the total, almost equal to oil, but it declined to about 20% a decade later and has remained at about that proportion since then. Coal currently is used almost exclusively for electric power generation, and its contribution to increased production of carbon dioxide has made its use controversial in light of concerns about global climate change."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2011-04-04
U.S. Fossil Fuel Resources: Terminology, Reporting, and Summary [November 30, 2010]

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"Discussions of U.S. and global energy supply refer to oil, natural gas, and coal using several terms that may be unfamiliar to some. The terms used to describe different types of fossil fuels have technically precise definitions, and misunderstanding or misuse of these terms may lead to errors and confusion in estimating energy available or making comparisons among fuels, regions, or nations. Fossil fuels are categorized, classified, and named using a number of variables. Naturally occurring deposits of any material, whether it is fossil fuels, gold, or timber, comprise a broad spectrum of concentration, quality, and accessibility (geologic, technical, and cultural). Terminology is adopted to reflect those characteristics. For oil and natural gas, a major distinction in measuring quantities of energy commodities is made between proved reserves and undiscovered resources. Proved reserves are those amounts of oil, natural gas, or coal that have been discovered and defined, typically by drilling wells or other exploratory measures, and which can be economically recovered. In the United States, proved reserves are typically measured by private companies, who report their findings to the Securities and Exchange Commission because they are considered capital assets. In addition to the volumes of proved reserves are deposits of oil and gas that have not yet been discovered, which are called undiscovered resources. The term has a specific meaning: undiscovered resources are amounts of oil and gas estimated to exist in unexplored areas. If they are considered to be recoverable using existing production technologies, they are referred to as undiscovered technically recoverable resources (UTRR). In-place resources are intended to represent all of the oil, natural gas, or coal contained in a formation or basin without regard to technical or economic recoverability."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Whitney, Gene; Glover, Carol F.; Behrens, Carl E.

2010-11-30
Landsat and the Data Continuity Mission [September 17, 2010]

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"The U.S. Landsat Mission has collected remotely sensed imagery of the Earth's surface for more than 35 years. At present two satellites--Landsat-5, launched in 1984, and Landsat-7, launched in 1999--are in orbit and continuing to supply images and data for the many users of the information, but they are operating beyond their designed life and may fail at any time. [...] Landsat has been used in a wide variety of applications, including climate research, natural resources management, commercial and municipal land development, public safety, homeland security and natural disaster management. Despite its wide use, efforts in the past to commercialize Landsat operations have not been successful. Most of the users of the data are other government agencies. For that reason, funding a replacement for the failing Landsat orbiters has been a federal responsibility. A number of factors have made it difficult for Congress to assure that the project successfully meets the goal of bridging the impending Landsat data gap. Of particular concern has been the possibility that the new satellite may not include the capability of receiving data in the thermal infrared spectrum, a capability that is now in Landsat 5 and 7 and which some users have found particularly useful. Funding for a Thermal Infrared Sensing Instrument (TIRS) was uncertain and progress on the instrument delayed during the early years of the mission. However, NASA's FY2009 appropriation included $10 million specifically for TIRS."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2010-09-17
CRS Issue Statement on Oil and Natural Gas Markets [January 19, 2010]

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This issue statement addresses energy security in the United States. From the text: "The sudden plunge of crude oil and gasoline prices in the second half of 2008 eased the urgency of legislative efforts to deal with high prices. In the 111th Congress, the energy focus shifted toward alternative energy sources and related policies regarding global climate change, but a number of oil and gas issues and questions remained to be resolved. Primary among them was the issue of increasing domestic production of conventional oil and gas resources, particularly the long-standing moratorium on oil and gas leasing on much of the Outer Continental Shelf, which the 110th Congress allowed to expire."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2010-01-19
Landsat and the Data Continuity Mission [June 7, 2010]

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"Landsat has been used in a wide variety of applications, including climate research, natural resources management, commercial and municipal land development, public safety, homeland security and natural disaster management [...] The U.S. Landsat Mission has collected remotely sensed imagery of the Earth's surface for more than 35 years. At present two satellites, Landsat-5, launched in 1984, and Landsat-7, launched in 1999--are in orbit and continuing to supply images and data for the many users of the information, but they are operating beyond their designed life and may fail at any time. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) jointly operate Landsat. The two agencies are developing a follow-on initiative known as the Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM). The LDCM spacecraft (LDCM-1), with its instrument payload, is currently planned for launch in December 2012. NASA completed the Critical Design Review of the LDCM on June 1, 2010, allowing the project to proceed with fullscale fabrication, assembly, integration, and test of the mission elements [...] Despite its wide use, efforts in the past to commercialize Landsat operations have not been successful. Most of the users of the data are other government agencies. For that reason, funding a replacement for the failing Landsat orbiters has been a federal responsibility. A number of factors have made it difficult for Congress to assure that the project successfully meets the goal of bridging the impending Landsat data gap. Of particular concern has been the possibility that the new satellite may not include the capability of receiving data in the thermal infrared spectrum, a capability that is now in Landsat 5 and 7 and which some users have found particularly useful."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2010-06-07
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Review Conference: Issues for Congress [May 16, 2005]

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"In recent years, several developments have led many to believe that the nuclear nonproliferation regime needs to be strengthened: the discovery of the A.Q. Khan nuclear black market network, Iran's unreported nuclear activities, including secret uranium enrichment facilities, the withdrawal of North Korea from the NPT in April 2003, and the discovery of Libya's covert nuclear weapons program, renounced in December 2003. Brazilian Ambassador Sergio Duarte, who will chair the May Review Conference, suggested that the main difficulty facing the review conference will be how to balance a perceived need for greater controls with treaty provisions that ensure the right to peaceful applications of nuclear technology. While the conference is unlikely to make specific recommendations, it will likely discuss some proposals to strengthen the regime, including those from President Bush and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Director General Mohamed ElBaradei."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Squassoni, Sharon A.

2005-05-16
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Review Conference: Issues for Congress [April 8, 2005]

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"In recent years, several developments have led many to believe that the nuclear nonproliferation regime needs to be strengthened: the discovery of the A.Q. Khan nuclear black market network, Iran's unreported nuclear activities, including secret uranium enrichment facilities, the withdrawal of North Korea from the NPT in April 2003, and the discovery of Libya's covert nuclear weapons program, renounced in December 2003. Brazilian Ambassador Sergio Duarte, who will chair the May Review Conference, suggested that the main difficulty facing the review conference will be how to balance a perceived need for greater controls with treaty provisions that ensure the right to peaceful applications of nuclear technology. While the conference is unlikely to make specific recommendations, it will likely discuss some proposals to strengthen the regime, including those from President Bush and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Director General Mohamed ElBaradei."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Squassoni, Sharon A.

2005-04-08
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers [Updated March 18, 2004]

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"Energy supplies and prices are a major economic factor in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy is of frequent interest to the Congress. This report presents a statistical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. Both long-term trends and short-term variations are given. After an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, the report presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources: oil, electricity, natural gas, and coal. A section on trends in energy efficiency is also presented. This report will be frequently updated with the latest available figures."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2004-03-18
Energy: Selected Facts and Numbers [Updated August 8, 2008]

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This CRS report analyzes the various energy sources in the United States. More specifically, "after an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, this report presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources: oil, electricity, natural gas, coal and renewable energy. A section on trends in energy efficiency is also presented. [...] Tracking changes in energy activity is complicated by variations in different energy markets. These markets, for the most part, operate independently, although events in one may influence trends in another. For instance, oil price movement can affect the price of natural gas, which then plays a significant role in the price of electricity. Since aggregate indicators of total energy production and consumption do not adequately reflect these complexities, this compendium focuses on the details of individual energy sectors. Primary among these are oil, particularly gasoline for transportation, and electricity generation and consumption. Natural gas is also an important energy source, for home heating as well as in industry and electricity generation. Coal is used almost entirely for electricity generation, nuclear and hydropower completely so. Renewable sources (except hydropower) continue to offer more potential than actual energy production, although fuel ethanol has become a significant factor in transportation fuel, and wind power has recently grown rapidly. Conservation and energy efficiency have shown significant gains over the past three decades, and offer encouraging potential to relieve some of the dependence on imports that has caused economic difficulties in the past as well as the present."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2008-08-08
Gasoline Prices: Causes of Increases and Congressional Response [Updated July 31, 2008]

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This CRS report talks about recent Congressional action in regards to sky rocketing gasoline prices. "The high price of gasoline has been and continues to be a driving factor in consideration of energy policy proposals." Despite passage of major legislation in 2005 and 2007, "numerous other proposed initiatives remain under active consideration in the 110th Congress. Measures proposed include repeal of some tax benefits to domestic oil and gas producers contained in EPACT2005, provisions on price gouging, and reform of oil and gas leasing in the Gulf of Mexico. With crude oil and gasoline prices surging to record levels, tax relief proposals have been added to the list of proposals." A second area of focus of the CRS report is the variety of factors which have contributed to the sky rocketing of gasoline prices. These factors "have combined to put pressure on gasoline prices, including increased world demand for crude oil and limited U.S. refinery capacity to supply gasoline. The war and continued violence in Iraq added uncertainty, and threats of supply disruption have added pressure, particularly to the commodity futures markets. Concern that speculation has added volatility and upward pressure has frequently been cited. In recent months, a decline in the value of the dollar compared to other currencies has increased the dollar price of oil on futures markets. The gasoline price surge has stimulated much legislative activity, but until recently there has not been the sense of the extreme urgency of previous energy crises. The continuing high prices have led to a further search for legislative remedies." Finally, the report also reviews the current energy policy options being considered by the 110th Congress.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2008-07-31
Extending NASA's Exemption from the Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act [Updated July 30, 2008]

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This CRS report provides an update on Congressional action taken in regards to the Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act [INKSNA]. "The Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000 [INA] was enacted to help stop foreign transfers to Iran of weapons of mass destruction, missile technology, and advanced conventional weapons technology, particularly from Russia. Section 6 of the INA banned U.S. payments to Russia in connection with the International Space Station [ISS] unless the U.S. President determined that Russia was taking steps to prevent such proliferation. When the President in 2004 announced that the Space Shuttle would be retired in 2010, the Russian Soyuz became the only vehicle available after that date to transport astronauts to and from the ISS. In 2005 Congress amended INA to exempt Soyuz flights to the ISS from the Section 6 ban through 2011. It also extended the provisions to Syria and North Korea, and renamed it the Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act [INKSNA]. NASA has now asked Congress to extend the exemption for the life of the ISS, or until U.S. crew transport vehicles become operational. As in 2005, an exemption would be needed before payments could be made to Russia since the President has not made a determination pursuant to Section 6(b) of the INKSNA regarding Russian nonproliferation policy or proliferation activities to Iran, North Korea or Syria."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Niktin, Mary Beth

2008-07-30
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers [Updated November 15, 2004]

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"Energy supplies and prices are a major economic factor in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy is of frequent interest to the Congress. This report presents a statistical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. After an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, the report presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources: oil, electricity, natural gas, and coal. A section on trends in energy efficiency is also presented."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2004-11-15
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers [Updated April 27, 2005]

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"Energy supplies and prices are a major economic factor in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy is of frequent interest to the Congress. This report presents a statistical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. After an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, the report presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources: oil, electricity, natural gas, and coal. A section on trends in energy efficiency is also presented. This report depends largely on data released annually by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) and will be updated as new data become available."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2005-04-27
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers [Updated January 10, 2006]

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"Energy supplies and prices are a major economic factor in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy is of frequent interest to the Congress. This report presents a statistical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. After an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, the report presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources: oil, electricity, natural gas, and coal. A section on trends in energy efficiency is also presented. This report depends largely on data released annually by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) and will be updated as new data become available."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2006-01-10
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers [Updated October 27, 2003]

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Energy supplies and prices are a major economic factor in the United States, whose markets are considered volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy is of frequent interest to the Congress. This report presents a statistical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. Both long-term trends and short-term variations are given, with a section on trends in energy efficiency also presented. After an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, the report presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources: oil, electricity, natural gas, and coal.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2003-10-27
Russian Missile Technology and Nuclear Reactor Transfers to Iran [Updated July 29, 1998]

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"Russia's 1995 decision to construct a large nuclear power station in Iran and to provide related nuclear facilities and services has also drawn sharp criticism from the Administration and the Congress, which fear an Iranian nuclear weapons program. Moscow appears determined to go ahead with this project despite the threat of U.S. economic sanctions. U.S.-Russian commercial relations might also be threatened by sanctions, and they are far more important to Russia than its commercial relations with Iran. U.S. assistance to Russia would also be threatened, but the reactor project could provide Russia with billions of dollars of hard currency earnings, far more than the amount of direct U.S. aid threatened by sanctions. This report examines Russian ballistic missile and nuclear reactor technology transfers to Iran and U.S. responses to those transfers. The report analyzes Iran's ballistic missile and nuclear power programs, the significance of Russia's contributions to those programs, resulting U.S. security concerns, and Russian-Iranian cooperation from the perspectives of Moscow, Tehran, and Washington. This report builds upon CRS Report 95-641, 'Russian Nuclear Reactor and Conventional Arms Transfers to Iran', May 25, 1995 and will be further updated after Congress has completed action on relevant legislation."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Shuey, Robert; Behrens, Carl E.; Katzman, Kenneth . . .

1998-07-29
U.S. Energy: Overview and Selected Facts and Numbers [February 3, 2009]

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This Congressional Research Service (CRS) report discusses U.S. energy. "Energy supplies and prices are major economic factors in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. Thus, energy policy has been a recurring issue for Congress since the first major crisis in the 1970s. As an aid in policy making, this report presents a current and historical view of the supply and consumption of various forms of energy. The historical trends show petroleum as the major source of energy, rising from about 38% in 1950 to 45% in 1975, then declining to about 40% in response to the energy crisis of the 1970s. Significantly, the transportation sector has been and continues to be almost completely dependent on petroleum, mostly gasoline. The importance of this dependence on the volatile world oil market was revealed over the past five years as perceptions of impending inability of the industry to meet increasing world demand led to relentless increases in the prices of oil and gasoline. With the downturn in the world economy and a consequent decline in consumption, prices collapsed, but the dependence on imported oil continues as a potential problem."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2009-02-03
Gasoline Prices: New Legislation and Proposals [January 10, 2006]

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"The high price of gasoline was an important consideration during the debate on major energy legislation, which ended August 8 as the President signed the Energy Policy Act of 2005, H.R. 6 (P.L. 109-58). However, prices continued to surge, spiking at the end of August when Hurricane Katrina shut down refining operations in the Gulf of Mexico. The continuing crisis renewed attention to some issues that were dropped or compromised in the debate over P.L. 109-58. A large number of factors combined to put pressure on gasoline prices, including increased world demand for crude oil and U.S. refinery capacity inadequate to supply gasoline to a recovering national economy. The war and continued violence in Iraq added uncertainty and a threat of supply disruption that added pressure particularly to the commodity futures markets. […] The gasoline price surge influenced the debate over P.L. 109-58, but the urgency of previous energy crises was lacking. In part, this may be due to the fact that there has been no physical shortage of gasoline or lines at the pump. In addition, the expectation of former crises -- that prices were destined to grow ever higher -- has not been prevalent. However, the persistence of high gasoline and oil prices into a second summer has raised alarms over the economic consequences of the situation, heightened following the disastrous effects of Hurricane Katrina. Another post-Katrina issue is the widespread suggestion that price gouging occurred in the surge in gasoline prices following the disaster."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Glover, Carol F.

2006-01-10
Energy Policy: Election Year Issues and Legislative Proposals [September 24, 2012]

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"U.S. energy policy since the Arab oil embargo in the 1970s has been aimed at a long-term goal with three major dimensions: to assure a secure supply of energy, to keep energy costs low enough to meet the needs of a growing economy, and to protect the environment while producing and consuming that energy. A continuing theme during this period has been that dependence on imported oil for a large share of the U.S. energy mix, particularly in the transportation sector, impedes that aim in all three dimensions, but the importance given to import dependence varies. For some, import dependence is the primary concern; for others, particularly those focused on environmental issues, it is a symptom of a general crisis that arises from indiscriminate consumption of fossil fuels. A particularly controversial aspect of the debate is the issue of global climate change, because burning fossil fuels produces large amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Like the goals of energy policy, the means of achieving them have three dimensions: reducing consumption by increased energy efficiency; increasing domestic production of conventional energy sources, particularly oil; and developing new sources of energy, particularly renewable energy and renewable fuels, that can replace oil and other fossil fuels. Pursuing the goals of energy policy has been complicated by the diversity of energy consumption and supply in the United States. On the consumption side, there are three major sectors: residential/commercial, industrial, and transportation. On the supply side, the primary sources have traditionally been fossil energy: petroleum, natural gas (and 'natural gas liquids' such as propane and butane), and coal. Electricity, which is both an energy source and a consumer of energy, has replaced some fossil fuels: about 75% of the energy consumed by the residential/commercial sector is electricity, and industrial energy consumption is about 35% electricity. But in the transportation sector, petroleum has remained dominant. Only in the past few years has corn-derived ethanol become a significant transportation fuel, replacing close to 10% of gasoline consumption. A diverse spectrum of generating sources is used to produce electricity. Coal for many years supplied half the electricity generated nationally. In recent years its share has declined; it was about 42% in 2011."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2012-09-24
Energy and Water Development: FY2012 Appropriations [October 23, 2012]

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"President Obama's FY2013 budget request for Energy and Water Development was released in February 2012. For FY2013 the level of overall spending will be a major issue. The Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA, P.L. 112-25) contained an overall discretionary spending cap for FY2013 of $1.047 trillion. On March 29, 2012, the House passed a budget resolution (H.Con.Res. 112) that caps spending at a lower level, $1.028 trillion. The Senate has not passed a budget resolution, but on April 19 the Senate Appropriations Committee allotted subcommittee funding levels that totaled the $1.047 trillion cap in the BCA. The difference between overall spending caps is reflected in differences in spending proposals for Energy and Water Development programs. The Administration's request for FY2013 was $33.684 billion. On April 25, the House Appropriations Committee reported out H.R. 5325 (H.Rept. 112-462), with a total of $32.156 billion. The Senate Appropriations Committee reported out S. 2465 (S.Rept. 112-164) on April 26, funding Energy and Water Development programs at $33.432 billion. On June 6 the House passed H.R. 5325 by a vote of 255-165, with some amendments. On September 28, 2012, President Obama signed into law the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (P.L. 112-175). The act continues appropriations until March 27, 2013, for Energy and Water Development programs at 0.612% above the FY2012-enacted levels, with two exceptions: DOE's [Department of Energy's] Nuclear Weapons Activities program is funded at an annual rate of $7.577 billion, the amount requested for FY2013, instead of the FY2012 rate of $7.214 billion, and the Nuclear Nonproliferation program was increased by $100 million over the FY2012 level of $2.296 billion to fund domestic uranium enrichment R&D [research and development]."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2012-10-23
Energy Policy: 112th Congress Issues and Legislative Proposals [November 8, 2012]

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"Energy policy in the United States has focused on three major goals: assuring a secure supply of energy, keeping energy costs low, and protecting the environment. In pursuit of those goals, government programs have been developed to improve the efficiency with which energy is utilized, to promote the domestic production of conventional energy sources, and to develop new energy sources, particularly renewable sources. Implementing these programs has been controversial because of varying importance given to different aspects of energy policy. For some, dependence on imports of foreign oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, is the primary concern; for others, the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels, whatever their origin, is most important. The contribution of burning fossil fuels to global climate change is particularly controversial. Another dichotomy is between those who see government intervention as a positive force and those who view it as a necessary evil at best. Energy policy is an important issue in the presidential campaign, and there are sharp differences between the positions of President Obama and Republican candidate Mitt Romney, and between most Republicans and Democrats in Congress. The Obama Administration has vigorously pushed energy efficiency and renewable energy initiatives, at the same time claiming to encourage development of oil and natural gas resources. President Obama has declared global climate change a major issue. The Romney campaign argues that the Obama Administration has blocked oil and gas development, and declares that so-called green technologies are too expensive to compete in the market. Alternative energy funding, according to Romney, should be concentrated on basic research. On global climate change, Romney acknowledges that human activity contributes to global warming, but claims there is no consensus on its extent or severity. He opposes unilateral measures that do not include actions by developing countries. The 112th Congress has not taken up comprehensive energy legislation, but numerous bills have been taken up on specific energy issues. Several notable bills that have passed the House but have not been taken up by the Senate are H.R. 4480, aimed at increasing leasing of federal land for oil and gas production; H.R. 2401 and H.R. 3409, which would limit EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency ] issuance of new emissions restrictions for coal-fired power plants; and H.R. 6213, which would prohibit the Department of Energy from granting loan guarantees for innovative and renewable energy projects."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2012-11-08
Energy Policy: 113th Congress Issues [January 3, 2013]

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"Energy policy in the United States has focused on three major goals: assuring a secure supply of energy, keeping energy costs low, and protecting the environment. In pursuit of those goals, government programs have been developed to improve the efficiency with which energy is utilized, to promote the domestic production of conventional energy sources, and to develop new energy sources, particularly renewable sources. Implementing these programs has been controversial because of varying importance given to different aspects of energy policy. For some, dependence on imports of foreign oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, is the primary concern; for others, the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels, whatever their origin, is most important. The contribution of burning fossil fuels to global climate change is particularly controversial. Another dichotomy is between those who see government intervention as a positive force and those who view it as a necessary evil at best."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.

2013-01-03
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers [Updated July 23, 2003]

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"On July 31, 2003, the Senate, facing obstacles to passage of its comprehensive energy bill (S. 14), substituted the energy legislation the Senate had passed and sent to conference in the 107th Congress. Principals are sorting out the implications of this unanticipated development; there are identical or similar provisions in both S. 14 and the substitute measure that the Senate passed as H.R. 6, but there are also significant differences. Amendments passed on the floor to S. 14 do not figure into the legislation passed by the Senate, including the electricity amendment -- crafted over a number of months -- which was on the floor when the Senate made its startling decision. However, the Republican managers of the energy legislation noted that the bill will be rewritten in conference. Among the issues waiting to be addressed in the Senate at the time of passage of H.R. 6 were climate change, clean air, Indian energy development, and hydroelectric relicensing, among other issues. There are climate change provisions in the version of H.R. 6 adopted by the Senate. On April 11, 2003, the House passed its version of H.R. 6 (247-175). The bill includes several provisions that were part of comprehensive, but not enacted, energy legislation (H.R. 4) debated during the 107th Congress. These provisions touch upon energy efficiency and conservation, clean coal technology, and reauthorization of the Price-Anderson Act nuclear liability system. The bill passed by the House would also provide roughly $18 billion in energy tax incentives."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Glover, Carol F.; Behrens, Carl E.

2003-07-23
Energy Policy: Comprehensive Energy Legislation (H.R. 6) in the 109th Congress [May 31, 2005]

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"The Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources reported comprehensive energy legislation on May 26, 2005. The committee agreed to some electricity provisions, including language that would repeal the Public Utility Holdings Company Act (PUHCA), but provide for oversight of acquisitions in the utility sector. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (H.R. 6) passed in the House would repeal PUHCA, but does not include oversight provisions. While the House-passed bill would require refiners to use 5 billion gallons of biofuel by 2012, the Senatereported bill calls for 8 billion gallons. An amendment in the Senate committee to permit states to opt out of federal moratoria on new offshore drilling was withdrawn. However, a provision to require an inventory of oil and natural gas resources on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) was adopted. The House-passed bill also makes no changes to the moratoria, but does not call for a resource study. The draft of the Senate bill as it went into markup is posted, with amendments, on the committee's website at [http://energy.senate.gov/ public/index.cfm?FuseAction=IssueItems. View&IssueItem_ID=3]. The text of the bill, as reported, may be available soon."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Bamberger, Robert; Behrens, Carl E.

2005-05-31
Energy Policy: Comprehensive Energy Legislation (H.R. 6, S. 10) in the 109th Congress [June 28, 2005]

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"On June 28, the Senate approved its version of H.R. 6, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (85-12). The House passed its version of H.R. 6 on April 21 (249-183). The Senate bill is similar to the House-passed version, but major differences exist. The most controversial difference between the House and Senate energy bills in the 108th Congress was the inclusion in the final bill of a 'safe harbor' provision favored by many House members. The provision, which would protect methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) refiners from product liability suits, is once again in the current House energy bill, but not in the Senate version. There have been reports of negotiations to achieve a compromise that would be acceptable to a majority of the Senate in the 109th Congress. There have also been reports that the 'safe harbor' provision would be dropped from the energy bill and possibly attached to highway legislation (H.R. 3) currently in conference. The two different versions of the bill will go to conference."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Bamberger, Robert

2005-06-28
Energy Policy: Comprehensive Energy Legislation (H.R. 6) in the 109th Congress [July 29, 2005]

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"Conferees on H.R. 6, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, agreed on a final bill July 26, 2005 (H.Rept. 109-190). On July 28, the House approved the conference report (275- 156). Senate approval (74-26) of the conference report followed the next day, July 29. […] Conferees on H.R. 6, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, began meeting July 14, 2005, and reached agreement on a final bill July 26, 2005 (H.Rept. 109-190). On July 28, the House approved the conference report (275-156). Senate approval (74-26) of the conference report followed the next day, July 29. (For a side-by-side comparison of the House and Senate versions of H.R. 6, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33006, 'Omnibus Energy Legislation, 109th Congress: Side-by-Side Assessment of House and Senate Versions of H.R. 6', coordinated by Mark Holt and Carol Glover.) The most controversial difference between the House and Senate energy bills in the 108th Congress was the inclusion in the House bill of a 'safe harbor' provision, which would protect methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) refiners from product liability suits. Conference Chairman Barton, after proposing a compromise July 22 that found little support, agreed to accept a conference bill without the safe harbor provision."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Bamberger, Robert; Behrens, Carl E.

2005-07-29
Energy Policy: Comprehensive Energy Legislation (H.R. 6) in the 109th Congress [May 13, 2005]

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"The Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources is scheduled to begin markup of its comprehensive energy legislation on May 17, 2005. Titles to be addressed initially include Energy Efficiency, Vehicles and Fuel, and Research and Development. The drafts of these and other titles are posted to the committee's website [http://energy.senate .gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=IssueIte ms.View&IssueItem_ID=3]. Other titles may be treated the week of May 23. The House passed H.R. 6, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, on April 21, 2005 (249- 183). The bill includes a 'safe harbor' provision to protect methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) refiners from product liability suits. A close vote on an amendment to drop the language failed (213-219). In the 108th Congress, this provision was included in the bill that was reported from conference. However, opposition to this provision in the Senate played a significant role in the defeat of the conference bill at the end of the first session of the 108th Congress. It is unclear how its inclusion may affect Senate passage of an energy bill in the 109th Congress."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Behrens, Carl E.; Bamberger, Robert

2005-05-13
Energy Policy: Comprehensive Energy Legislation (H.R. 6) in the 109th Congress [April 22, 2005]

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"The House passed H.R. 6, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, on April 21, 2005 (249- 183). The legislation includes a 'safe harbor' provision to protect methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) refiners from product liability suits, which was narrowly retained after a close vote on an amendment to drop the language (213- 219). In the 108th Congress, this provision was included in the bill that was reported from conference. However, there was opposition to this provision in the Senate and it had a significant role in the defeat of the conference bill at the end of the first session of the 108th Congress. It is unclear how its inclusion may affect Senate passage of an energy bill in the 109th Congress. Language in the bill to authorize opening of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) to exploration and development may prove controversial as well. An amendment to delete the ANWR provisions from H.R. 6 was defeated (200-231). The Bush Administration's FY2006 budget request supported opening ANWR and projects bonus bid revenues at $2.4 billion, half of which would accrue to the federal government and the balance to Alaska. On March 9, 2005, the Senate Budget Committee issued a budget resolution that assumes $2.5 billion of revenue over the next five years from leases in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). On March 17, the Senate passed the budget resolution (S.Con.Res. 18) after voting 49-51 the previous day to reject an amendment by Senator Cantwell to remove the ANWR provision. The House version of the budget resolution (H.Con.Res. 95) passed on March 17 did not include the ANWR provisions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Bamberger, Robert; Behrens, Carl E.

2005-04-22
Energy Policy: Legislative Proposals in the 109th Congress [April 1, 2005]

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"The House Energy and Commerce Committee is scheduled to begin a full committee markup of comprehensive energy legislation the week of April 4, 2005. The committee has indicated that provisions in draft sections that have been released would increase domestic oil and gas production, impose mandatory electricity-transmission reliability standards, and provide funding for alternative sources of energy. Previously, on February 10, 2005, the House Science Committee reported H.R. 610, which includes less controversial research and development provisions that were part of the comprehensive legislation (H.R. 6) debated in the 108th Congress. Yet to be determined is how costly the energy tax provisions of any comprehensive bill should be. The bill that went to conference in the 108th Congress (but was not enacted) included more than $30 billion in tax credits. Some energy tax incentives were subsequently extended or adopted in the Working Families Tax Relief Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-311) and the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-357). The Administration's FY2006 budget request calls for only $6.7 billion in energy tax credits."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Bamberger, Robert; Behrens, Carl E.

2005-04-01

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