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On the Edge of Chaos: Battling Complexity with Complexity, an Examination of Swarm Logic
From the Document: "The underlying premise for the US Army's newest operating concept published December 2017, 'Multi-Domain Battle: Evolution of Combined Arms for the 21st Century,' is that growing complexity in warfare and increased adversarial capabilities necessitate a new approach to leveraging the US joint military force across all domains. This monograph explores the field of complexity science and concept that complex problems require complex solutions, namely swarming. While previous research has focused on the physical aspects of swarming and the ability to converge from a dispersed posture, this study looks to the core logic of this emergent phenomenon. By studying swarm logic through various levels of abstraction - natural case studies, simulations, and military case studies, this study demonstrates the effects of localized interactions and self-organization to power successful complex adaptive systems. These complex adaptive systems thrive in the very conditions that are supposed to challenge the future US military - highly degraded command and control with increased dispersion."
U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. School of Advanced Military Studies
Andrews, Anthony E.
2018-05-24
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ISIS vs. Al Qaeda: An Ideological Comparison
From the Document: "This paper addresses the ideological differences that drive the divergent strategies pursued by Al Qaeda and ISIS [Islamic State of Iraq and Syria]. It examines the history and ideological background that is relevant to both organizations to provide an appropriate level of context. Using a qualitative comparative case study methodology, the paper provides a detailed study of the key ideological facets that shape how Al Qaeda and ISIS formulate their respective strategies. Finally, the paper analyzes the key differences between the groups and explains how this information can be useful to operational planners. The key findings are that Al Qaeda and ISIS have fundamentally different ideological views about how to unite and purify the Islamic 'Umma' and wage jihad, which drive vastly different strategies. The findings from this monograph can be particularly useful for future planners as they build operational approaches for combating Al Qaeda and ISIS, and for anticipating the actions of other Sunni jihadist groups."
U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. School of Advanced Military Studies
Andrews, Anthony E.
2018-05-24
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Unconventional Gas Shales: Development, Technology, and Policy Issues [October 30, 2009]
"In the past, the oil and gas industry considered gas locked in tight, impermeable shale uneconomical to produce. However, advances in directional well drilling and reservoir stimulation have dramatically increased gas production from unconventional shales. The United States Geological Survey estimates that 200 trillion cubic feet of natural gas may be technically recoverable from these shales. Recent high natural gas prices have also stimulated interest in developing gas shales. Although natural gas prices fell dramatically in 2009, there is an expectation that the demand for natural gas will increase. Developing these shales comes with some controversy, though. The hydraulic fracturing treatments used to stimulate gas production from shale have stirred environmental concerns over excessive water consumption, drinking water well contamination, and surface water contamination from both drilling activities and fracturing fluid disposal. The saline 'flowback' water pumped back to the surface after the fracturing process poses a significant environmental management challenge in the Marcellus region. The flowback's high content of total dissolved solids (TDS) and other contaminants must be disposed of or adequately treated before discharged to surface waters. The federal Clean Water Act and state laws regulate the discharge of this flowback water and other drilling wastewater to surface waters, while the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates deep well injection of such wastewater. Hydraulically fractured wells are also subject to various state regulations. Historically, the EPA has not regulated hydraulic fracturing, and the 2005 Energy Policy Act exempted hydraulic fracturing from SDWA regulation. Recently introduced bills would make hydraulic fracturing subject to regulation under SDWA, while another bill would affirm the current regulatory exemption."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphries, Marc; Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)
2009-10-30
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Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [March 2, 2011]
"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power is attracting renewed interest. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 541 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. A major concern about the global expansion of nuclear power is the potential spread of nuclear fuel cycle technology--particularly uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing--that could be used for nuclear weapons. Despite 30 years of effort to limit access to uranium enrichment, several undeterred states pursued clandestine nuclear programs, the A.Q. Khan black market network's sales to Iran and North Korea representing the most egregious examples. However, concern over the spread of enrichment and reprocessing technologies may be offset by support for nuclear power as a cleaner and more secure alternative to fossil fuels. Both the Bush and Obama Administrations have expressed optimism that advanced nuclear technologies being developed by the Department of Energy may offer proliferation resistance. Both Administrations have also pursued international incentives and agreements intended to minimize the spread of fuel cycle facilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony
2011-03-02
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve and Refined Product Reserves: Authorization and Drawdown Policy [March 11, 2011]
"Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA, P.L. 94-163) to help prevent a repetition of the economic dislocation caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. The Department of Energy (DOE) manages the SPR, which comprises five underground storage facilities, solution-mined from naturally occurring salt domes in Texas and Louisiana. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) authorized SPR expansion to a capacity of 1 billion barrels, but physical expansion of the SPR has not proceeded beyond 727 million barrels �"� its inventory at the end of 2010. In addition, a Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve (NHOR) holds 2 million barrels of heating oil in above-ground storage. EPCA authorized drawdown of the Reserve upon a finding by the President that there is a 'severe energy supply interruption.' Congress enacted additional authority in 1990 (Energy Policy and Conservation Act Amendments of 1990, P.L. 101-383) to permit use of the SPR for short periods to resolve supply interruptions stemming from situations internal to the United States. The meaning of a 'severe energy supply interruption' has been controversial. EPCA intended use of the SPR only to ameliorate discernible physical shortages of crude oil. The government had ended the practice of purchasing crude oil to fill the SPR in 1994. In 2000, the Department of Energy began acquiring SPR oil through royalty-in-kind (RIK) in lieu of cash royalties paid on production from federal offshore leases. In May 2008, Congress passed legislation (P.L. 110-232) ordering DOE to suspend RIK fill for the balance of the calendar year unless the price of crude oil dropped below $75/barrel. Crude oil prices spiked to $147/barrel in the summer of 2008 and then sharply declined, allowing a resumption of fill. These activities have brought the SPR essentially to its current 727 million barrel inventory. The current Secretary of the Interior recently announced his intention to terminate the RIK program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Pirog, Robert L.; Andrews, Anthony
2011-03-11
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Nuclear Power Plant Sites: Maps of Seismic Hazards and Population Centers [March 29, 2011]
"Currently, 104 commercial nuclear power plants operate on 64 sites in the 48 contiguous United States. Sixty-nine of the 104 are pressurized water reactors (PWR) and the 35 remaining are boiling water reactors (BWR). The PWR plants are based on Babcock & Wilcox, Combustion Engineering, and Westinghouse designs. The BWR plants are based on a series of General Electric designs. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has received 28 Combined License (COL) applications for new reactors based on advanced reactor designs (Table 2). Three COL applications will involve new sites. CRS determined the coordinates of plant sites using web-based applications and overlaid the sites on base maps of: 1. Quaternary faults, 2. Seismic hazards in terms of percent gravitational acceleration, 3. Levels of horizontal ground shaking (gravitational acceleration) that have a 2-in- 100 (2%) probability of being exceeded in a 50-year period, and 4. Metropolitan populations To map the proximity of plant sites to faults (Figure 1), CRS referred to the USGS Quaternary Fault and Fold Database of the United States. This database contains information on faults and associated folds in the United States that are believed to be sources of greater than magnitude 6 (M>6) earthquakes during the Quaternary (the past 1,600,000 years). It is important to note that this map is not a prediction of an earthquake event."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2011-03-29
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U.S. Oil Refining Industry: Background in Changing Markets and Fuel Policies [November 22, 2010]
"A decade ago, 158 refineries operated in the United States and its territories and sporadic refinery outages led many policy makers to advocate new refinery construction. Fears that crude oil production was in decline also led to policies promoting alternative fuels and increased vehicle fuel efficiency. Since the summer 2008 peak in crude oil prices, however, the U.S. demand for refined petroleum products has declined, and the outlook for the petroleum refining industry in the United States has changed. In response to weak demand for gasoline and other refined products, refinery operators have begun cutting back capacity, idling, and, in a few cases, permanently closing their refineries. By current count, 124 refineries now produce fuel in addition to 13 refineries that produce lubricating oils and asphalt. Even as the number of refineries has decreased, operable refining capacity has actually increased over the past decade, from 16.5 million barrels/day to over 18 million barrels/day. Cyclical economic factors aside, U.S. refiners now face the potential of long-term decreased demand for their products. This is the result of legislative and regulatory efforts that were originally intended, in part, to accommodate the growing demand for petroleum products, but which may now displace some of that demand. These efforts include such policies as increasing the volume of ethanol in the gasoline supply, improving vehicle fuel efficiency, and encouraging the purchase of vehicles powered by natural gas or electricity."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sherlock, Molly F.; Andrews, Anthony; Pirog, Robert L.
2010-11-22
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Nuclear Power Plant Design and Seismic Safety Considerations [May 2, 2011]
"Since the March 11, 2011, earthquake and tsunami that devastated Japan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station, the seismic criteria applied to siting commercial nuclear power plants operating in the United States have received increased attention; particularly the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC's) 2010 reassessment of seismic risks at certain plant sites. Commercial nuclear power plants operating in the United States vary considerably, as most were custom-designed and custom-built. Boiling water reactors (BWRs) directly generate steam inside the reactor vessel. Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) use heat exchangers to convert the heat generated by the reactor core into steam outside of the reactor vessel. U.S. utilities currently operate 104 nuclear power reactors at 65 sites in 31 states; 69 are PWR designs and the 35 remaining are BWR designs. One of the most severe operating conditions for a reactor is a loss of coolant accident (LOCA), which can lead to a reactor core meltdown. The emergency core cooling system (ECCS) provides core cooling to minimize fuel damage by injecting large amounts of cool, borated water into the reactor coolant system following a pipe rupture or other water loss, and (secondarily) to provide extra neutron poisons to ensure the reactor remains shut down. The ECCS must be sized to provide adequate make-up water to compensate for a break of the largest diameter pipe in the primary system (i.e., the so-called 'double-ended guillotine break' (DEGB)). However, the NRC considers the DEGB to be an extremely unlikely event. Nevertheless, even unlikely events can occur, as the combined tsunami and magnitude 9.0 earthquake that struck Fukushima Daiichi proves. U.S. nuclear power plants have designs based on Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis (DSHA). Since then, Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) has been adopted as a more comprehensive approach in engineering practice. Consequently, the NRC is reassessing the probability of seismic core damage at existing plants."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2011-05-02
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Nuclear Power Plant Security and Vulnerabilities [August 23, 2010]
"The physical security of nuclear power plants and their vulnerability to deliberate acts of terrorism was elevated to a national security concern following the attacks of September 11, 2001. Since the attacks, Congress has repeatedly focused oversight and legislative attention on nuclear power plant security requirements established and enforced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT05, P.L. 109-58) imposed specific criteria for NRC to consider in revising the 'Design Basis Threat' (DBT), which specifies the maximum severity of potential attacks that a nuclear plant's security force must be capable of repelling. In response to the legislative mandate, NRC revised the DBT (10 C.F.R. Part 73.1) on April 18, 2007. Among other changes, the revisions expanded the assumed capabilities of adversaries to operate as one or more teams and attack from multiple entry points. To strengthen nuclear plant security inspections, EPACT05 required NRC to conduct 'force-onforce' security exercises at nuclear power plants at least once every three years. In these exercises, a mock adversary force from outside a nuclear plant attempts to penetrate the plant's vital area and simulate damage to a 'target set' of key safety components. From the start of the program through 2009, 112 force-on-force inspections were conducted, with each inspection typically including three mock attacks by the adversary force. During the 112 inspections, eight mock attacks resulted in the simulated destruction of complete target sets, indicating inadequate protection against the DBT, and additional security measures were promptly implemented, according to NRC."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony; Holt, Mark
2010-08-23
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Nuclear Power Plant Security and Vulnerabilities [March 18, 2009]
"The physical security of nuclear power plants and their vulnerability to deliberate acts of terrorism was elevated to a national security concern following the September 11, 2001 attacks. Since then, Congress has repeatedly focused oversight and legislative attention on nuclear power plant security requirements established and enforced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) imposed specific criteria for NRC to consider in revising the 'Design Basis Threat' (DBT), which specifies the maximum severity of potential attacks that a nuclear plant's security force must be capable of repelling. In response to the legislative mandate, NRC revised the DBT (10 C.F.R. Part 73.1) on April 18, 2007. Among other changes, the revisions expanded the assumed capabilities of adversaries to operate as one or more teams and attack from multiple entry points. To strengthen nuclear plant security inspections, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 act required NRC to conduct 'force-on-force' security exercises at nuclear power plants at least once every three years. In these exercises, a mock adversary force from outside a nuclear plant attempts to penetrate the plant's vital area and simulate damage to key safety components. [...]. Other ongoing nuclear plant security issues include the vulnerability of spent fuel pools, which hold highly radioactive nuclear fuel after its removal from the reactor, standards for nuclear plant security personnel, and nuclear plant emergency planning. NRC's December 2008 security regulations addressed some of those concerns and included a number of other security enhancements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Andrews, Anthony
2009-03-18
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Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage Locations and Inventory [Updated December 21, 2004]
"Spent nuclear fuel is principally stored at 83 locations throughout the United States, including reactor storage pools, independent spent fuel storage installations, national laboratories, and defense weapons sites. Additional sites include university research and training reactors. The104 commercial nuclear generating units1 licensed to operate in 31 states discharge over 2,000 metric tons2 of spent fuel annually. The total inventory could approach 54,000 metric tons at the end of 2004. This report will be updated when new statistics become available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2004-12-21
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Federal Agency Authority to Contract for Electric Power and Renewable Energy Supply [August 15, 2011]
"The federal government purchases roughly 57 million megawatt-hours of electricity annually (based on FY2007 data, the latest information available), making it the single largest U.S. energy consumer. The Department of Defense (DOD) alone consumes over 29 million megawatt-hours. The federal Power Marketing Administrations (PMAs) sell electricity at more than twice the volume of federal power purchases, over 127 million megawatt-hours of hydropower annually, and are projected to produce wind-generated energy far in excess of the 2005 Energy Policy Act (EPAct) mandates for increasing federal use of renewable energy. […] The 1978 Public Utilities Regulation Policies Act (PURPA) defined a new class of small renewable energy generators that produce less than 80 megawatts and required electric utilities to purchase the electricity generated at the utility's 'avoided cost' of power production via a stateauthorized 'power purchase' contract (also referred to as a power purchase agreement). However, state laws and regulations vary on the use of the contracts. States are more likely to permit the contracts when the purchaser is a utility, because the utility is responsible for providing firm uninterrupted power to the customer. Four PMAs market and distribute hydropower in 34 states to public utility districts and cooperatives at cost-based rates. EPAct directed the PMAs to study the economic and engineering feasibility of combining wind-generated energy with hydropower and to conduct a demonstration project that uses wind energy generated by Indian tribes. Short of amending federal contract authority, federal agencies may have recourse to meet EPAct mandates by purchasing power through the PMAs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2011-08-15
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Department of Defense Fuel Costs in Iraq [July 23, 2008]
"Since the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the average price of fuels purchased for military operations in Iraq has steadily increased. The disparity between the higher price of fuel supplied to the United States Central Command compared to Iraq's civilian population has been a point of contention. Several factors contribute to the disparity, including the different types of fuel used by the military compared to Iraqi civilians, the Iraqi government's price subsidies, and the level pricing that the DOD's Defense Logistics Agency charges for military customers around the world. The Iraqi government has been pressured to reduce its fuel subsidy and black market fuel prices remain higher than the official subsidized price."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony; Schwartz, Moshe
2008-07-23
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Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [September 12, 2011]
"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 541 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. A major concern about the global expansion of nuclear power is the potential spread of nuclear fuel cycle technology--particularly uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing--that could be used for nuclear weapons. Despite 30 years of effort to limit access to uranium enrichment, several undeterred states pursued clandestine nuclear programs, the A.Q. Khan black market network's sales to Iran and North Korea representing the most egregious examples. However, concern over the spread of enrichment and reprocessing technologies may be offset by support for nuclear power as a cleaner and more secure alternative to fossil fuels. […] Congress will have a considerable role in at least four areas of oversight related to fuel cycle proposals. The first is providing funding and oversight of U.S. domestic programs related to expanding nuclear energy in the United States. The second area is policy direction and/or funding for international measures to assure supply. A third set of policy issues may arise in the context of U.S. participation in IFNEC [International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation] or related initiatives. A fourth area in which Congress plays a key role is in the approval of nuclear cooperation agreements. Significant interest in these issues is expected to continue in the 112th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony; Holt, Mark
2011-09-12
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Department of Defense Implementation of the Federal Data Center Consolidation Initiative: Implications for Federal Information Technology Reform Management [July 12, 2012]
"The Department of Defense (DOD) is the single largest energy consumer in the nation. As the largest owner of federal data centers, with 772, the DOD has more than twice as many centers as any other agency. By consolidating some of its data centers, DOD could have a significant positive impact on energy savings for the federal government. DOD has instituted a number of policy directives, as have all federal agencies, that influence energy use in its data centers. Data centers are facilities--buildings or parts of buildings--used to store, manage, and disseminate electronic information for a computer network. They house servers, which are computers used to perform network-management functions such as data storage and processing, and communications equipment and devices to connect the servers with the network. Data centers usually draw their power from the electric grid, but they may also contain specialized power conversion and backup equipment to maintain reliable power. Power consumption varies greatly among data centers but is typically many times higher than for other kinds of buildings. Within the context of the FDCCI [Federal Data Center Consolidation Initiative], DOD's efforts are intended to address concerns about rising energy demands and costs of data centers, associated increases in carbon emissions, expanding real-estate footprints of data centers, and rising real-estate costs. According to DOD, the Department plans to reduce the number of its data centers by about 30% by 2013, and the number of servers by 25%. DOD intends to use savings generated from consolidation to pay the consolidation costs. DOD also plans to use cloud computing as part of its savings effort."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Figliola, Patricia Moloney; Andrews, Anthony; Fischer, Eric A.
2012-07-12
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Nuclear Power Plant Security and Vulnerabilities [August 28, 2012]
"The physical security of nuclear power plants and their vulnerability to deliberate acts of terrorism was elevated to a national security issue following the attacks of September 11, 2001. Congress subsequently enacted new nuclear plant security requirements and has repeatedly focused attention on regulation and enforcement by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). More than a decade after the 9/11 attacks, security at nuclear plants remains an important concern. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT05, P.L. [Public Law] 109-58) imposed specific criteria for NRC to consider in revising the 'Design Basis Threat' (DBT), which specifies the maximum severity of potential attacks that a nuclear plant's security force must be capable of repelling. In response to the legislative mandate, NRC revised the DBT (10 C.F.R. Part 73.1) on April 18, 2007. Among other changes, the revisions expanded the assumed capabilities of adversaries to operate as one or more teams and attack from multiple entry points."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Andrews, Anthony
2012-08-28
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Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [October 19, 2012]
"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 548 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. […] Congress will have a considerable role in at least four areas of oversight related to fuel cycle proposals. The first is providing funding and oversight of U.S. domestic programs related to expanding nuclear energy in the United States. The second area is policy direction and/or funding for international measures to assure supply. A third set of policy issues may arise in the context of U.S. participation in IFNEC (International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation) or related initiatives. A fourth area in which Congress plays a key role is in the approval of nuclear cooperation agreements. Significant interest in these issues is expected to continue in the 112th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Andrews, Anthony; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham
2012-10-19
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DOD Purchase of Renewable Energy Credits Under the National Defense Authorization Act of 2012 [November 27, 2012]
"The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 (NDAA; P.L. [Public Law] 112-81, §2824) directs the Secretary of Defense 'to establish a policy to maximize savings for the bulk purchase of replacement renewable energy certificates (RECs) in connection with the development of facility energy projects using renewable energy sources.' The provision requires that each service acquire replacement RECs through either a centralized purchasing authority within the respective department, or the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA). It presumes that either agency brings the commensurate expertise in the RECs to purchase them and obtain the best value for the military department. Central purchasing could offer inherent advantages in efficiency and economy. DOD's executive agent for purchasing energy in bulk is the Defense Logistics Agency- Energy (DLA-E), which operates through a working capital fund to purchase fuel and power for its clients--the armed services and some non-defense federal agencies. Purchasing RECs would logically extend DLA-E's mission (which DLA-E already does to a limited extent)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2012-11-27
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Nuclear Power Plant Design and Seismic Safety Considerations [January 12, 2012]
"The earthquake and subsequent tsunami that devastated Japan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station and the earthquake that forced the North Anna, VA, nuclear power plant's temporary shutdown have focused attention on the seismic criteria applied to siting and designing commercial nuclear power plants. Some Members of Congress have questioned whether U.S nuclear plants are more vulnerable to seismic threats than previously assessed, particularly given the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC's) ongoing reassessment of seismic risks at certain plant sites. The design and operation of commercial nuclear power plants operating in the United States vary considerably because most were custom-designed and custom-built. Boiling water reactors (BWRs) directly generate steam inside the reactor vessel. Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) use heat exchangers to convert the heat generated by the reactor core into steam outside of the reactor vessel. U.S. utilities currently operate 104 nuclear power reactors at 65 sites in 31 states; 69 are PWR designs and the 35 are BWR designs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)
2012-01-12
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Energy and Water Development: FY2009 Appropriations [March 18, 2008]
"The annual consideration of appropriations bills (regular, continuing, and supplemental) by Congress is part of a complex set of budget processes that also encompasses the consideration of budget resolutions, revenue and debt-limit legislation, other spending measures, and reconciliation bills. In addition, the operation of programs and the spending of appropriated funds are subject to constraints established in authorizing statutes. Congressional action on the budget for a fiscal year usually begins following the submission of the President's budget at the beginning of the session. Congressional practices governing the consideration of appropriations and other budgetary measures are rooted in the Constitution, the standing rules of the House and Senate, and statutes, such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. This report is a guide to the regular appropriations bills that Congress considers each year. It is designed to supplement the information provided by the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on Energy and Water Development. It summarizes the status of the bill, its scope, major issues, funding levels, and related congressional activity, and is updated as events warrant. The report lists the key CRS staff relevant to the issues covered and related CRS products."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Behrens, Carl E.; Bearden, David M.; Andrews, Anthony
2008-03-18
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Authorization, Operation, and Drawdown Policy [April 25, 2012]
"Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) of 1975 to help prevent a repetition of the economic disruption caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. EPCA specifically authorizes the President to draw down the SPR upon a finding that there is a 'severe energy supply interruption.' The meaning of a 'severe energy supply interruption' has been controversial. The authors of EPCA intended the SPR only to ameliorate discernible physical shortages of crude oil. Historically, increasing crude oil prices typically signal market concerns for supply availability. However, Congress deliberately kept price trigger considerations out of the President's SPR drawdown authority because of the question about what price level should trigger a drawdown, and the concern that a price threshold could influence market behavior and industry inventory practices. As a member of the International Energy Agency-a coalition of 28 countries-the United States agrees to support energy supply security through energy policy cooperation, commit to maintaining emergency reserves equal to 90 days of net petroleum oil imports, develop programs for demand restraint in the event of emergencies, and participate in allocation of oil deliveries among the signatory nations to balance a shortage. […] The 30.64 million barrel SPR sale in 2011 reduced the SPR's inventory from 726.6 million barrels to 695.9 million barrels. The SPR currently holds the equivalent of 80 days of import protection (based on 2012 data of 8.72 million barrels per day of net petroleum imports)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony; Pirog, Robert L.
2012-04-25
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Authorization, Operation, and Drawdown Policy [April 2, 2012]
"Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the 1975 Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) to help prevent a repetition of the economic disruption caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. EPCA specifically authorizes the President to draw down the SPR upon a finding that there is a 'severe energy supply interruption.' The meaning of a 'severe energy supply interruption' has been controversial. The authors of EPCA intended the SPR only to ameliorate discernible physical shortages of crude oil. Historically, increasing crude oil prices typically signal market concerns for supply availability. However, Congress deliberately kept price trigger considerations out of the President's SPR drawdown authority because of the question about what price level should trigger a drawdown, and the concern that a price threshold could influence market behavior and industry inventory practices. International Energy Agency member countries (which include the United States) have committed to maintaining emergency reserves equal to 90 days of net crude oil imports, developing programs for demand restraint in the event of emergencies, and agreeing to participate in allocation of oil deliveries among the signatory nations to balance a shortage. The Department of Energy (DOE) manages the SPR, comprised of five underground storage facilities, solution-mined from naturally occurring salt domes in Texas and Louisiana. The 2005 Energy Policy Act authorized SPR expansion to a capacity of 1 billion barrels, but physical capacity expansion of the SPR has not proceeded beyond 726.6 million barrels. The SPR's maximum drawdown capacity is 4.4 million barrels per day, based on the capacity of the pipelines and marine terminals that serve it. Legislation restricts SPR sales to no more than 30 million barrels over a 60-day period for anything less than a severe energy supply interruption."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony; Pirog, Robert L.
2012-04-02
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Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [September 12, 2009]
"After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 541 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by tax credits, loan guarantees, and other incentives in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, as well as by concerns about carbon emissions from competing fossil fuel technologies. A major concern about the global expansion of nuclear power is the potential spread of nuclear fuel cycle technology-particularly uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing-that could be used for nuclear weapons. Despite 30 years of effort to limit access to uranium enrichment, several undeterred states pursued clandestine nuclear programs, the A.Q. Khan black market network's sales to Iran and North Korea representing the most egregious examples. However, concern over the spread of enrichment and reprocessing technologies may be offset by support for nuclear power as a cleaner and more secure alternative to fossil fuels. Both the Bush and Obama Administrations have expressed optimism that advanced nuclear technologies being developed by the Department of Energy may offer proliferation resistance. Both Administrations have also pursued international incentives and agreements intended to minimize the spread of fuel cycle facilities. Proposals offering countries access to nuclear power and thus the fuel cycle have ranged from requesting formal commitments by these countries to forswear sensitive enrichment and reprocessing technology, to a de facto approach in which states would not operate fuel cycle facilities but make no explicit commitments, to no restrictions at all. Countries joining the U.S.- led Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), now the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), signed a statement of principles that represented a shift in U.S. policy by not requiring participants to forgo domestic fuel cycle programs. Whether developing states will find existing proposals attractive enough to forgo what they see as their 'inalienable' right to develop nuclear technology for peaceful purposes remains to be seen."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony; Holt, Mark
2011-09-12
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Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy [April 13, 2006]
"Oil shale is prevalent in the western states of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.
The resource potential of these shales is estimated to be the equivalent of 1.8 trillion barrels of oil in place. Retorted oil shale yields liquid hydrocarbons in the range of middle-distillate fuels, such as jet and diesel fuel. However, because oil shales have not proved to be economically recoverable, they are considered a contingent resource and not true reserves. It remains to be demonstrated whether an economically significant oil volume can be extracted under existing operating conditions. In comparison, Saudi Arabia reportedly holds proved reserves of 267 billion barrels. The current high oil prices have revived the interest in oil shale. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT) identified oil shale as a strategically important domestic resource, among others, that should be developed. EPACT also directed the Secretary of Defense to develop a separate strategy to use oil shale in meeting Department of Defense (DOD) requirements when doing so is in the national interest. Tapping unconventional resources, such as oil shale, has been promoted as a means of reducing dependence on foreign oil and improving national security. Opponents of federal subsidies for oil shale argue that the price and demand for crude oil should act as sufficient incentives to stimulate development. Projections of increased demand and peaking petroleum production in the coming decades tend to support the price-and-supply incentive argument in the long term."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2006-04-13
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Radioactive Tank Waste from the Past Production of Nuclear Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 3, 2007]
"How to safely dispose of wastes from producing nuclear weapons has been an ongoing issue. The most radioactive portion of these wastes is stored in underground tanks at Department of Energy (DOE) sites in Idaho, South Carolina, and Washington State. There have been concerns about soil and groundwater contamination from some of the tanks that have leaked. DOE proposed to remove the 'pumpable' liquid waste, classify the sludge-like remainder as 'waste incidental to reprocessing,' and seal it in the tanks with a cement grout. DOE has argued that closing the tanks in this manner would be a cost-effective and timely way to address environmental risks. Questions were raised as to how much waste would be left in the tanks and whether the grout would contain the waste and prevent leaks. After considerable debate, the 108th Congress included provisions in the Ronald W. Reagan National Defense Authorization Act for FY2005 (P.L. 108-375) authorizing DOE to grout some of the waste in the tanks in Idaho and South Carolina. Congress did not provide such authority in Washington State. This report provides background information on the disposal of radioactive tank waste, analyzes the waste disposal authority in P.L. 108-375, discusses the implementation of this authority, and examines relevant issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bearden, David M.; Andrews, Anthony
2007-01-03
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Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power [Updated January 30, 2008]
"After several decades of decline and disfavor, nuclear power is attracting renewed interest. New permit applications for 30 reactors have been filed in the United States, and another 150 are planned or proposed globally, with about a dozen more already under construction. In the United States, interest appears driven, in part, by provisions in the 2005 Energy Policy Act authorizing streamlined licensing that combine construction and operating permits, and tax credits for production from advanced nuclear power facilities. Moreover, the U.S. Department of Energy proposes to spend billions of dollars to develop the next generation of nuclear power technology."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Andrews, Anthony
2008-01-30
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Energy and Water Development: FY2008 Appropriations [Updated January 31, 2008]
"The Energy and Water Development appropriations bill provides funding for civil works projects of the Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), the Department of Energy (DOE), and a number of independent agencies. Key budgetary issues involving these programs include the distribution of Army Corps of Engineers appropriations across the agency's authorized construction and maintenance activities (Title I); support of major ecosystem restoration initiatives, such as Florida Everglades (Title I) and California 'Bay-Delta' (CALFED) (Title II); funding for the proposed national nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, and proposals to store nuclear spent fuel temporarily (Title III: Nuclear Waste Disposal); and the Administration's proposed Global Nuclear Energy Partnership to supply plutonium-based fuel to other nations (Title III: Nuclear Energy)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Behrens, Carl E.; Bearden, David M.; Andrews, Anthony
2008-01-31
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Nuclear Power Plant Security and Vulnerabilities [January 18, 2008]
"The physical security of nuclear power plants and their vulnerability to deliberate acts of terrorism was elevated to a national security concern following the events of September 11, 2001. Title VI of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 regarding nuclear security amended the Atomic Energy Act with the addition of new provisions for security evaluations and rulemaking to revise the 'Design Basis Threat.' The act included provisions for fingerprinting and criminal background checks of security personnel, their use of firearms, and the unauthorized introduction of dangerous weapons. The designation of facilities subject to enforcement of penalties for sabotage expanded to include treatment and disposal facilities. As part of security response evaluations, the act requires the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to conduct 'force-on-force' security exercises at nuclear power plants at least once every three years, and revise the 'design-basis threat' to consider a wider variety of potential attacks. The NRC has strengthened its regulations on nuclear power plant security, but critics contend that implementation by the industry has been too slow and that further measures are needed. Vulnerability to a deliberate aircraft crash remains an outstanding issue, as the latest NRC rulemaking addresses only newly designed plants. Shortcomings in the performance of security contractors has drawn the attention of Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Andrews, Anthony
2008-01-18
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Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development [March 27, 2008]
"As part of the World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb, reprocessing technology was developed to chemically separate and recover fissionable plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel. In the early stage of commercial nuclear power, reprocessing was thought essential to supplying nuclear fuel. Federally sponsored breeder reactor development included research into advanced reprocessing technology. Several commercial interests in reprocessing foundered due to economic, technical, and regulatory issues. President Carter terminated federal support for reprocessing in an attempt to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons material. Reprocessing for nuclear weapons production ceased shortly after the Cold War ended. The Department of Energy now proposes a new generation of 'proliferation-resistant' reactor and reprocessing technology."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony
2008-03-27
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Nuclear Power Plants: Vulnerability to Terrorist Attack [Updated August 8, 2007]
"Protection of nuclear power plants from land-based assaults, deliberate aircraft crashes, and other terrorist acts has been a heightened national priority since the attacks of September 11, 2001. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has strengthened its regulations on nuclear reactor security, but critics contend that implementation by the industry has been too slow and that further measures are needed. Several provisions to increase nuclear reactor security are included in the Energy Policy Act of 2005, signed August 8, 2005. The law requires NRC to conduct 'force-on-force' security exercises at nuclear power plants at least once every three years and to revise the 'design-basis threat' that nuclear plant security forces must be able to meet, among other measures. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark; Andrews, Anthony
2007-08-08
