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• Trends in the Timing and Size of DHS Appropriations: In Brief [August 6, 2015]

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  "This report examines trends in the timing and size of homeland security appropriations measures. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was officially established on January 24, 2003. Just over a week later, on February 3, 2003, the Administration made its first annual appropriations request for the new department.1 Transfers of most of the department's personnel and resources from their existing agencies to DHS occurred March 1, 2003, and on April 16, the department received its first supplemental appropriations. March 1, 2003, fell in the middle of fiscal year 2003 (FY2003). It was not the end of a fiscal quarter. It was not even the end of a pay period for the employees transferred to the department. Despite these managerial complications, resources and employees were transferred to the control of the department and their work continued without interruption in the face of the perceived terror threat against the United States. Thus, while the department did receive appropriations and operate in FY2003, tracking the size and timing of annual appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security begins with its first annual appropriations cycle, covering FY2004."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Painter, William L.

  2015-08-06
• Types of Committee Hearings [August 10, 2015]

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  "Congressional committee hearings may be broadly classified into four types: 'legislative', 'oversight', 'investigative', and 'confirmation'. Hearings may be held on Capitol Hill or elsewhere (e.g., a committee member's district or state, or a site related to the subject of the hearing). These latter hearings are often referred to as field hearings. All hearings have a similar formal purpose: to gather information for use by the committee in its activities. This information is often used to shape legislation, even when the hearing is not specifically a legislative hearing. All four types of hearings share common characteristics. The differences among them may appear indistinct, and their purposes sometimes overlap. For example, investigative hearings are sometimes seen as a type of oversight or may lead to legislation, and legislative hearings on a bill might also provide oversight opportunities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Heitshusen, Valerie

  2015-08-10
• Transportation Security: Issues for the 116th Congress [Updated February 11, 2019]

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  "The nation's air, land, and marine transportation systems are designed for accessibility and efficiency, two characteristics that make them vulnerable to terrorist attack. While hardening the transportation sector is difficult, measures can be taken to deter terrorists. The enduring challenge facing Congress is how best to implement and finance a system of deterrence, protection, and response that effectively reduces the possibility and consequences of terrorist attacks without unduly interfering with travel, commerce, and civil liberties."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Elias, Bartholomew; Frittelli, John; Peterman, David Randall

  2019-02-11
• Turkey: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief [Updated July 9, 2019]

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  From the Summary: "The United States and Turkey have been NATO allies since 1952 and share some vital interests, but harmonizing their priorities has been particularly difficult in recent years. These priorities sometimes diverge irrespective of who leads the two countries, based on contrasting geography, threat perceptions, and regional roles. [...] The next phase in relations between the United States and Turkey will take place with Turkey facing a number of political and economic challenges. Observers question how Erdogan will govern a polarized electorate and deal with the foreign actors who can affect Turkey's financial solvency, regional security, and political influence. U.S. officials and lawmakers can refer to Turkey's complex history, geography, domestic dynamics, and international relationships in evaluating how to encourage Turkey to align its policies with U.S. interests."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zanotti, Jim; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs)

  2019-07-09
• Turkey: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief [Updated February 8, 2019]

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  "This report provides background information and analysis on the following topics: [1] Various aspects of U.S.-Turkey relations, including (1) Turkey's strategic orientation; (2) U.S./NATO cooperation and how a Turkish purchase of an S-400 air defense system from Russia could endanger its acquisition of U.S.-origin F-35 aircraft; (3) the situation in northern Syria, including with Kurdish-led militias; (4) criminal cases of note since the failed 2016 coup attempt in Turkey; and (5) congressional proposals. [2] Domestic Turkish developments, including politics under President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's largely authoritarian and polarizing rule (with local elections scheduled for March 2019), and significant economic concerns."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zanotti, Jim; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs)

  2019-02-08
• Trends in the Timing and Size of DHS Appropriations: In Brief [Updated April 4, 2019]

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  From the Document: "This report examines trends in the timing and size of homeland security appropriations measures. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was officially established on January 24, 2003. Just over a week later, on February 3, 2003, the Administration made its first annual appropriations request for the new department. Transfers of most of the department's personnel and resources from their existing agencies to DHS occurred March 1, 2003, and on April 16, the department received its first supplemental appropriations. March 1, 2003, fell in the middle of fiscal year 2003 (FY2003). It was not the end of a fiscal quarter. It was not even the end of a pay period for the employees transferred to the department. Despite these administrative complications, resources and employees were transferred to the control of the department and their work continued without interruption in the face of the perceived terror threat against the United States. While the department did receive appropriations and operate in FY2003, tracking the size and timing of annual appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security begins with its first annual appropriations cycle, covering FY2004."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Painter, William L.

  2019-04-04
• Thailand: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated June 25, 2019]

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  From the Overview: "Thailand is a long-time military ally and economic partner of the United States. These ties endure,but more than a decade of political turmoil in Thailand, including two military coups in 2006 and 2014, has complicated U.S.-Thai relations and erased Thailand's image as a model democracy in Southeast Asia. Thailand conducted nationwide elections in March 2019--its first since 2011--and in June seated a new government led by Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha, the former Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Army who led the 2014 coup. The polls were conducted under new rules drafted by the junta that structurally protect the military's influence, and questions remain about the new government's popular legitimacy. The military government also rewrote Thailand's constitution to create a military-appointed Senate, and was widely criticized for harassment of government critics and severe restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Dolven, Ben; Smith, Kirt

  2019-06-25
• Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations and Issues for Congress [April 15, 2013]

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  "The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a potential free trade agreement (FTA) among 11, and perhaps more, countries. The United States and 10 other countries of the Asia-Pacific region-- Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam--are negotiating the text of the FTA. With 29 chapters under negotiation, the TPP partners envision the agreement to be 'comprehensive and high-standard,' in that they seek to eliminate tariffs and non-tariff barriers to trade in goods, services, and agriculture, and to establish rules on a wide range of issues including foreign direct investment and other economic activities. They also strive to create a '21st-century agreement' that addresses new and crosscutting issues presented by an increasingly globalized economy. The TPP draws congressional interest on a number of fronts. Congress would have to approve implementing legislation for U.S. commitments under the agreement to enter into force. In addition, under long-established executive-legislative practice, the Administration notifies and consults with congressional leaders, before, during, and after trade agreements have been negotiated. Furthermore, the TPP will likely affect a range of sectors and regions of the U.S. economy of direct interest to Members of Congress and could influence the shape and path of U.S. trade policy for the foreseeable future. This report examines the issues related to the proposed TPP, the state and substance of the negotiations (to the degree that the information is publically available), the specific areas under negotiation, the policy and economic contexts in which the TPP would fit, and the issues for Congress that the TPP presents. The report will be revised and updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jurenas, Remy . . .

  2013-04-15
• Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations and Issues for Congress [March 19, 2013]

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  "The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a proposed regional free trade agreement (FTA) being negotiated among the United States, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. On March 15, 2013, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that Japan would seek to participate in the TPP negotiations. [...] The 16th round of negotiations concluded in Singapore on March 14, 2013, and the 17th round is scheduled to be held in Lima, Peru in May 2013. The current goal is to reach an agreement in time for the October 2013 APEC summit in Indonesia. For this deadline to be achieved, outstanding negotiating positions may need to be tabled soon in order for political decisions to be made. [...] As the negotiations proceed, a number of issues important to Congress are emerging. One is whether the United States can balance its vision of creating a 'comprehensive and high standard' agreement with a large and expanding group of countries, while not insisting on terms that other countries will reject. Another issue is how Congress will consider the TPP, if concluded. The present negotiations are not being conducted under the auspices of formal trade promotion authority (TPA)--the latest TPA expired on July 1, 2007--although the Administration informally is following the procedures of the former TPA. If TPP implementing legislation is brought to Congress, TPA may need to be considered if the legislation is not to be subject to potentially debilitating amendments or rejection. Finally, Congress may seek to weigh in on the addition of new members to the negotiations, before or after the negotiations conclude."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jurenas, Remy . . .

  2013-03-19
• Turkey: Background and U.S. Relations [April 23, 2013]

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  "Several Turkish domestic and foreign policy issues have significant relevance for U.S. interests, and Congress plays an active role in shaping and overseeing U.S. relations with Turkey. This report provides background information on Turkey and discusses possible policy options for Members of Congress and the Obama Administration. U.S. relations with Turkey--a longtime North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ally--have evolved over time. Turkey's economic dynamism and geopolitical importance--it straddles Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia and now has the world's 17th-largest economy--have increased its influence regionally and globally. Although Turkey still depends on the United States and other NATO allies for political and strategic support, its growing economic diversification and military self-reliance allows Turkey to exercise greater leverage with the West. These trends have helped fuel continuing Turkish political transformation led in the past decade by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and the Justice and Development Party (AKP), which has Islamist roots. Future domestic political developments may determine the extent to which Turkey reconciles popular views favoring Turkish nationalism and Sunni Muslim values with protection of individual freedoms, minority rights, rule of law, and the principle of secular governance. Debate on issues such as the status of Turkey's ethnic Kurdish population (including the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), a U.S.-designated terrorist organization), the civil-military balance, the role of religion in public life, and press freedom could coalesce in 2013 around a popular referendum on a new constitution. This, in turn, could have significant ramifications for scheduled presidential elections in 2014 and parliamentary elections in 2015."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zanotti, Jim

  2013-04-23
• Trends in Discretionary Spending [April 29, 2013]

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  "Discretionary spending is provided and controlled through appropriations acts, which fund many of the activities commonly associated with such federal government functions as running executive branch agencies, congressional offices and agencies, and international operations of the government. Essentially all spending on federal wages and salaries is discretionary. Spending can be measured by budget authority (BA; what agencies can legally obligate the government to pay) or outlays (disbursements from the U.S. Treasury). This report mostly discusses trends in outlays. Federal spending in fiscal year (FY) 2012 was just under a quarter (23%) of the U.S. economy, as measured as a share of gross domestic product (GDP). Federal spending since 1962 has averaged about a fifth of GDP. (Years denote federal fiscal years unless otherwise noted.) Discretionary spending accounted for 34% of total outlays in 2012 ($3,538 billion), well below mandatory spending's share (60% of outlays in 2012). Weak economic conditions in recent years as well as long-term demographic trends have increased spending on mandatory income support and retirement programs, while policy makers have taken steps to constrain the growth of discretionary spending. Net interest costs were 6.3% of federal outlays in 2012, but are projected to rise sharply as interest rates return to historic levels."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Austin, D. Andrew

  2013-04-29
• Trends in Discretionary Spending [April 15, 2013]

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  "Discretionary spending is provided and controlled through appropriations acts, which fund many of the activities commonly associated with such federal government functions as running executive branch agencies, congressional offices and agencies, and international operations of the government. Essentially all spending on federal wages and salaries is discretionary. Spending can be measured by budget authority (BA; what agencies can legally obligate the government to pay) or outlays (disbursements from the U.S. Treasury). This report mostly discusses trends in outlays. Federal spending in fiscal year (FY) 2012 was just under a quarter (23%) of the U.S. economy, as measured as a share of gross domestic product (GDP). Federal spending since 1962 has averaged about a fifth of GDP. (Years denote federal fiscal years unless otherwise noted.) Discretionary spending accounted for 34% of total outlays in 2012 ($3,538 billion), well below mandatory spending's share (60% of outlays in 2012). Weak economic conditions in recent years as well as long-term demographic trends have increased spending on mandatory income support and retirement programs, while policy makers have taken steps to constrain the growth of discretionary spending. Net interest costs were 6.3% of federal outlays in 2012, but are projected to rise sharply as interest rates return to historic levels."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Austin, D. Andrew

  2013-04-15
• Trade Agreements: Impact on the U.S. Economy [April 10, 2013]

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  "The United States is considering a number of trade agreements, including the Trans-Pacific Partnership Trade Agreement (TPP) and the U.S.-European Union Trade and Investment Partnership. The Congress also may address the issue of trade promotion authority (TPA), which expired on July 1, 2007. In contrast with trade agreements with smaller economies, these two recently proposed agreements could have a significant impact on some aspects of U.S. trade and investment activities that could affect numerous U.S. workers and businesses. During this process, Congress likely will be presented with an array of data estimating the impact of trade agreements on the economy, or on a particular segment of the economy. […] This report examines the major features of economic models being used to estimate the effects of trade agreements. It assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the models as an aid in helping Congress evaluate the economic impact of trade agreements on the U.S. economy. In addition, this report identifies and assesses some of the assumptions used in the economic models and how these assumptions affect the data generated by the models. Finally, this report evaluates the implications for Congress of various options it may consider as it assesses trade agreements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2013-04-10
• Terrorism Risk Insurance: Issue Analysis and Overview of Current Program [April 26, 2013]

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  "Prior to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, insurance coverage for losses from such attacks was normally included in general insurance policies without specific cost to the policyholders. Following the attacks, such coverage became very expensive if insurers offered it at all. Because insurance is required for a variety of economic transactions, it was feared that the absence of insurance against terrorism loss would have a wider economic impact. Private terrorism insurance was largely unavailable for most of 2002, and some have argued that this adversely affected parts of the economy. Congress responded to the disruption in the terrorism insurance market by passing the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 (TRIA; P.L. 107-297, 116 Stat. 2322). TRIA created a temporary three-year Terrorism Insurance Program in which the government would share some of the losses with private insurers should a foreign terrorist attack occur. This program was extended in 2005 (P.L. 109-144, 119 Stat. 2660) and 2007 (P.L. 110-160, 121 Stat. 1839). The amount of government loss sharing depends on the size of the insured loss. In general terms, for a relatively small loss, private industry covers the entire loss. For a medium-sized loss, the federal role is to spread the loss over time and over the entire insurance industry; the government assists insurers initially but then recoups the payments through a broad levy on insurers afterwards. For a large loss, the federal government would cover most of the losses, although recoupment is possible in these circumstances as well. Insurers are required to make terrorism coverage available to commercial policyholders, but TRIA does not require policyholders to purchase terrorism coverage. The prospective government share of losses has been reduced over time compared with the initial act, but the 2007 reauthorization expanded the program to cover losses stemming from acts of domestic terrorism. The TRIA program is currently slated to expire at the end of 2014."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Webel, Baird

  2013-04-26
• TRICARE and VA Health Care: Impact of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) [April 22, 2013]

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  "The 111th Congress passed, and the President signed into law, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (P.L. 111-148; ACA), which was later amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-152; HCERA), and is hereafter referred to as ACA. In general, ACA did not make any significant changes to the Department of Defense (DOD) TRICARE program or to the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system. However, many have sought clarification as to whether certain provisions in ACA, such as a mandate for most individuals to have health insurance, or extending dependent coverage up to age 26, would apply to TRICARE and VA health care beneficiaries. […] ACA requires that if a health insurance plan provides for dependent coverage of children, the plan must continue to make such coverage available for an adult child until age 26. This requirement relating to coverage of adult children took effect for the plan years beginning on or after September 23, 2010. Under ACA, both married and unmarried children qualify for this coverage. The authorizing statute for CHAMPVA [Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Department of Veterans Affairs] currently does not conform to this ACA requirement. Furthermore, although the TRICARE authorizing statute has been amended to provide for coverage of children until age 26, the coverage provided by the new legislation differs from that required by ACA in some important ways. To address CHAMPVA's nonconformance with ACA's requirements, the CHAMPVA Children's Protection Act (H.R. 288) and a similar measure (S. 325) have been introduced in the 113th Congress. This report addresses key questions concerning how ACA affects TRICARE and VA health care."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Panangala, Sidath Viranga; Jansen, Don J.

  2013-04-22
• Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations and Issues for Congress [August 21, 2013]

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  "The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a proposed regional free trade agreement (FTA) being negotiated among the United States, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. On March 15, 2013, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that Japan would seek to participate in the TPP negotiations. On April 24, 2013, the Obama Administration gave Congress notice of its intent to negotiate with Japan in the TPP, and Japan participated for the first time in the round of negotiations in Malaysia during late July 2013. [...] The TPP serves several strategic goals in U.S. trade policy. First, it is the leading trade policy initiative of the Obama Administration, and is a manifestation of the Administration's 'pivot' to Asia. If concluded, it may serve to shape the economic architecture of the Asia-Pacific region by harmonizing existing agreements with U.S. FTA partners, attracting new participants, and establishing regional rules on new policy issues facing the global economy--possibly providing impetus to future multilateral liberalization under the WTO [World Trade Organization]. As the negotiations proceed, a number of issues important to Congress are emerging. One is whether the United States can balance its vision of creating a 'comprehensive and high standard' agreement with a large and expanding group of countries, while not insisting on terms that other countries will reject. Another issue is how Congress will consider the TPP, if concluded. The present negotiations are not being conducted under the auspices of formal trade promotion authority (TPA)--the latest TPA expired on July 1, 2007--although the Administration informally is following the procedures of the former TPA. If TPP implementing legislation is brought to Congress, TPA may need to be considered if the legislation is not to be subject to potentially debilitating amendments or rejection. Finally, Congress may seek to weigh in on the addition of new members to the negotiations, before or after the negotiations conclude."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jurenas, Remy . . .

  2013-08-21
• Trade Promotion Authority (TPA): Issues, Options, and Prospects for Renewal [Updated July 12, 2007]

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  "On July 1, 2007, Trade Promotion Authority (TPA -- formerly known as fast track), expired. TPA is the authority Congress grants to the President to enter into certain free trade agreements (FTAs), and to have their implementing bills considered under expedited legislative procedures, provided he observes certain statutory obligations in negotiating them. TPA allows Congress to exercise its constitutional authority over trade, while giving the President added leverage to exercise his authority to negotiate trade agreements by effectively assuring U.S. trade partners that final agreements are given swift and unamended consideration. […] Bilateral agreements with Panama, Peru, Colombia, and South Korea were signed in time to be considered under the 2002 TPA. The protracted WTO [World Trade Organization] Doha Round of multilateral negotiations is still incomplete and may yet be the remaining key trade agreement that could compel Congress to consider extending or renewing TPA. Some observers also suggest that TPA is important to support future bilateral FTA negotiations, particularly given that many countries appear ready to continue pursuing FTAs irrespective of U.S. trade policy. Key Members of the House and Senate, however, have signaled that TPA renewal is not at the top of the legislative agenda and will require considerable deliberation before it can be passed. Congress has many options in dealing with TPA: take no action; extend temporarily; revise and renew; grant permanent authority; or devise some hybrid solution. How this issue plays out depends on a host of political and economic variables. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2007-07-12
• Trade Promotion Authority (TPA): Issues, Options, and Prospects for Renewal [December 5, 2006]

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  "TPA [Trade Promotion Authority] reflects years of debate, cooperation, and compromise between Congress and the Executive Branch. Congress has express constitutional authority to impose duties and regulate foreign commerce, while the President has the sole authority to negotiate international agreements and exerts broad power over U.S. foreign policy. TPA arose from a pragmatic need to accommodate these authorities in the conduct of U.S. trade policy, as well as address concerns that constituent pressures can often lead to poor trade policy decisions. The 'Smoot-Hawley' Tariff Act of 1930, for example, raised tariffs significantly, diminishing trade and prolonging the Great Depression. In response, Congress delegated to the President in 1934 authority to negotiate pre-approved reductions in tariff rates. TPA evolved in 1974 from this precedent to allow the President to negotiate non-tariff barriers (NTBs), provided he comply with various congressional requirements set out in the statute. The core provisions of the fast track legislative procedures have remained virtually unchanged since they were first enacted, although Congress has expanded trade negotiation objectives, oversight, and presidential notification requirements. While early versions of fast track/TPA received broad bipartisan support, renewal efforts became increasingly controversial as fears grew over the perceived negative effects of trade, and as the trade debate became more partisan in nature. Congress last renewed TPA in the Trade Act of 2002 following a pitched battle and largely partisan-line vote. Two key issues dominated: labor and environment provisions and guaranteeing a bipartisan congressional role in trade policy making."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2006-12-05
• Trade Agreements: Impact on the U.S. Economy [Updated April 20, 2005]

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  This Congressional Research Service report discusses the features of economic models used by Congress to evaluate the impact of foreign trade agreements. "The United States is negotiating an unprecedented number of trade agreements. […] An important policy tool that can assist Congress in assessing the value and the impact of trade agreements is represented by sophisticated models of the economy that are capable of simulating changes in economic conditions. […] This report examines the major features of economic models being used to estimate the effects of trade agreements. It assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the models as an aid in helping Congress evaluate the economic impact of trade agreements on the U.S. economy. In addition, this report identifies and assesses some of the assumptions used in the economic models and how these assumptions affect the data generated by the models. Finally, this report evaluates the implications for Congress of various options it may consider as it assesses trade agreements. This report will be updated as events warrant." Included tables: Estimated Economic Effects on the United States of a 33% Reduction in Barriers to Trade in Agriculture, Manufactures, and Services at the Doha Development Round; Estimated Economic Effects on the United States of Free Trade Agreements With Various Trading Partners; Projected Sectoral Employment Effects (Job Gains and Losses) in the United States of Various Trade Agreements; Projected Sectoral Employment Effects (Job Gains and Losses) in the United States of Various Trade Agreements.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2005-04-20
• Terrorism Risk Insurance: Issue Analysis and Overview of Current Program [September 10, 2013]

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  "Prior to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, insurance coverage for losses from such attacks was normally included in general insurance policies without specific cost to the policyholders. Following the attacks, such coverage became very expensive if insurers offered it at all. Because insurance is required for a variety of economic transactions, it was feared that the absence of insurance against terrorism loss would have a wider economic impact. Terrorism insurance was largely unavailable for most of 2002, and some have argued that this adversely affected parts of the economy. Congress responded to the disruption in the terrorism insurance market by passing the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 (TRIA; P.L. 107-297, 116 Stat. 2322). TRIA created a temporary three-year Terrorism Insurance Program in which the government would share some of the losses with private insurers should a foreign terrorist attack occur. This program was extended in 2005 (P.L. 109-144, 119 Stat. 2660) and 2007 (P.L. 110-160, 121 Stat. 1839). The amount of government loss sharing depends on the size of the insured loss. In general terms, for a relatively small loss, private industry covers the entire loss. For a medium-sized loss, the federal role is to spread the loss over time and over the entire insurance industry; the government assists insurers initially but then recoups the payments through a broad levy on insurance policies afterwards."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Webel, Baird

  2013-09-10
• Trade Preferences for Developing Countries and the WTO [Updated August 8, 2007]

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  "World Trade Organization (WTO) Members must grant immediate and unconditional most-favored-nation (MFN) treatment to the products of other Members with respect to tariffs and other trade-related measures. Programs such as the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), under which developed countries grant preferential tariff rates to developing country products, are facially inconsistent with this obligation because they accord goods of some countries more favorable tariff treatment than that accorded to goods of other WTO Members. Because such programs have been viewed as trade-expanding, however, Contracting Parties to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided a legal basis for one-way tariff preferences and certain other preferential arrangements in a 1979 decision known as the Enabling Clause. In 2004, the WTO Appellate Body ruled that the Clause allows developed countries to offer different treatment to developing countries in a GSP program, but only if identical treatment is available to all similarly situated GSP beneficiaries. Where WTO Members' preference programs have provided expanded benefits, Members, including the United States, have generally obtained WTO waivers. In December 2006, Congress extended the GSP program until December 31, 2008, and Andean preferences until June 30, 2007, allowing conditional extension of Andean benefits for six months thereafter (P.L. 109-432). The 2006 statute also extends a third-country fabric provision in the African Growth and Opportunity Act and expands textile benefits for Haiti."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Jeanne J.

  2007-08-08
• Trade Preferences for Developing Countries and the WTO [Updated September 16, 2005]

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  "World Trade Organization (WTO) Members must grant immediate and unconditional most-favored-nation (MFN) treatment to the products of other Members with respect to tariffs and other trade-related measures. Programs such as the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), under which developed countries grant preferential tariff rates to developing country products, are facially inconsistent with this obligation since they accord goods of some countries more favorable tariff treatment than that accorded goods of other WTO Members. Because such programs have been viewed as trade-expanding, however, Contracting Parties to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided a legal basis for one-way tariff preferences and certain other preferential arrangements in a 1979 decision known as the Enabling Clause. WTO Members have received GATT waivers for preferences that exceed what this GATT exception allows. In 2004, the WTO Appellate Body ruled that the Enabling Clause allows developed countries to offer different treatment to developing countries, but only if identical treatment is available to all similarly-situated GSP beneficiaries. Two 109th Congress bills (S. 191 and H.R. 886) would grant preferential market access to products of the least-developed countries. H.R. 3175 would expand textile-related trade preferences to sub-Saharan African countries. This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Jeanne J.; Mathai, Sabu

  2005-09-16
• Trade Policymaking in the European Union: Institutional Framework [March 27, 2002]

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  This document describes the institutional framework and associated roles and functions of the European Union (EU), to include trade policy-making processes. "Trade policy in the EU is made in the context of legal provisions provided by the 1957 Treaty of Rome. As part of this treaty, an institutional framework for the making of trade policy-common commercial policy-was established. Despite relatively few changes in the treaty base of the EU's common commercial policy, its institutional framework has evolved over time as the scope of what constitutes trade policy has changed. The roles and functions of key institutions - the European Commission, the Council of Ministers, subordinate bodies of the Council, the European Parliament, and the European Court of Justice - are described in this report. The actual process of how the EU makes trade policy is of growing interest to the United States as the EU continues to play a larger and more assertive role in the world economy. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ahearn, Raymond J.

  2002-03-27
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [March 26, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. […] A modern trend in terrorism is toward loosely organized, self-financed, international networks of terrorists. Another trend istoward terrorism that is religiously- or ideologicallymotivated. Radical Islamic fundamentalist groups, or groups using religion as a pretext, pose terrorist threats of varying kinds to U.S. interests and to friendly regimes. Some nations facing difficult challenges include Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and, to a certain extent, Russia and Saudi Arabia. Looming over the entire issue of international terrorism is a trend toward proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). For instance Iran, seen as the most active state sponsor of terrorism, has been aggressively seeking a nuclear arms capability. Iraq is thought to be stockpiling chemical and biological agents. Also, indications have surfaced that the al Qaeda organization attempted to acquire chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weapons. As a result, stakes in the war against international terrorism and its supporters are increasing and margins for error in selecting appropriate policy instruments or combinations of them to prevent terrorist attacks are diminishing correspondingly."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-03-26
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [Updated February 2, 2006]

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  "In what many see as a major setback to faltering Middle East peace efforts, Hamas won 76 out of 132 seats in the Palestinian Authority's Parliamentary elections on January 25, 2006. Hamas is one of the more than 30 organizations the United States and other governments have designated as terrorist organizations. Its leaders have repeatedly called for the destruction of Israel and the organization uses terrorist attacks against civilians as a tactic to achieve that goal. Concern exists that should a Hamas-controlled government support terrorism in deed as well as rhetoric, a new Palestinian state might well be declared a state sponsor of terrorism, lose foreign aid, and face economic sanctions. Moreover, absent a meaningful renunciation of terrorism, nations are reviewing the pros and cons of continuing foreign assistance to a Hamas-controlled Palestinian Authority."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael

  2006-02-02
• Thailand: Background and U.S. Relations [June 20, 2007]

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  "U.S.-Thailand relations are of particular interest to Congress because of Thailand's status as a long-time military ally and a significant trade and economic partner. The currently-stalled proposed U.S.-Thailand Free Trade Agreement (FTA) would require implementing legislation to take effect. However, the ouster of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra by a military coup in September 2006 and subsequent economic and political instability has cast uncertainty on how U.S. priorities will fare in the future. Future U.S.-Thai relations will likely depend upon how quickly the military rulers fulfill their promise to restore democratic rule. Despite differences on Burma policy and human rights issues, shared economic and security interests have long provided the basis for U.S.-Thai cooperation. Thailand contributed troops and support for U.S. military operations in both Afghanistan and Iraq and was designated as a major non-NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] ally by President Bush in December 2003. Thailand's airfields and ports play a particularly important role in U.S. global military strategy, including having served as the primary hub of the relief effort following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. […] With its favorable geographic location and broad-based economy, Thailand has traditionally been considered among the most likely countries to play a major leadership role in Southeast Asia and has been an aggressive advocate of increased economic integration in the region. A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Thailand maintains close ties with China, has reached out to India, and is pursuing FTAs with a number of other countries. Given its ties with the United States, Thailand's stature in the region may affect broader U.S. foreign policy objectives and prospects for further multilateral economic and security cooperation in Southeast Asia. In the context of the Pentagon's transformation and realignment initiatives, current logistical facilities in Thailand could become more important to U.S. strategy in the region. This report will be updated periodically."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Chanlett-Avery, Emma

  2007-06-20
• Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the Caribbean [September 9, 2011]

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  "Trafficking in persons (TIP) for the purpose of exploitation is a lucrative criminal activity that is of major concern to the United States and the international community. According to the most recent U.S. State Department estimates, roughly 800,000 people are trafficked across borders each year. If trafficking within countries is included in the total world figures, official U.S. estimates are that some 2 million to 4 million people are trafficked annually. While most trafficking victims still appear to originate from South and Southeast Asia or the former Soviet Union, human trafficking is also a growing problem in Latin America. […] Activity on combating TIP has continued into the 112th Congress, particularly related to efforts to reauthorize the TVPA and oversee TIP programs and operations, including U.S.-funded programs in Latin America. Congress may also consider increasing funding for anti-TIP programs in the region, possibly through the Mérida Initiative for Mexico, the Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI) or through other assistance programs. Congress is likely to monitor new trends in human trafficking in the region, such as the increasing involvement of Mexican drug trafficking organizations in TIP and the problem of child trafficking in Haiti, which has worsened since that country experienced a devastating earthquake on January 12, 2010. For more general information on human trafficking and a discussion of TIP-related legislation in the 112th Congress, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL34317, 'Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress', by Alison Siskin and Liana Sun Wyler."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2011-09-09
• Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) and Its Role in U.S. Trade Policy [October 7, 2011]

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  "Congress created Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) in the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 to help workers and firms adjust to dislocation that may be caused by increased trade liberalization. It is justified now, as it was then, on grounds that the government has an obligation to help the 'losers' of policy-driven trade liberalization. In addition, TAA is presented as an alternative to policies that would restrict imports, and so provides assistance while bolstering freer trade and diminishing prospects for potentially costly tension (retaliation) among trade partners. As in the past, critics strongly debate the merits of TAA on equity, efficiency, and budgetary grounds. Nonetheless, TAA still appears to serve what is now a historically pragmatic legislative function: it remains important for forging a compromise on national trade policy. […] On September 22, 2011, the Senate agreed to the amended bill, 70-27, after which it was sent to the House. In separate action, the House Ways and Means Committee favorably reported out all three FTA [free trade agreement] implementing bills on October 3, 2011. On October 6, 2011, the House Committee on Rules issued a closed rule covering all four bills. Senate amendment to H.R. 2832 is expected to be taken up by the House on October 12, 2011, along with implementing bills for the three FTAs. H.R. 2832, as amended, will be considered under a rule that waives all points of order and allows for one hour of debate. The bill requires simple majority to pass, and having already been agreed to in the Senate, House passage would then allow it to be sent to the President for signature."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Rover, Laine Elise

  2011-10-07
• Trade Preferences for Developing Countries and the World Trade Organization (WTO) [October 5, 2011]

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  "Article I:1 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (GATT 1994) requires World Trade Organization (WTO) Members to grant most-favored-nation (MFN) treatment 'immediately and unconditionally' to the like products of other Members with respect to tariffs and other trade-related measures. Programs such as the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), under which developed countries grant preferential tariff rates to developing country goods, are facially inconsistent with this obligation because they accord goods of some countries more favorable tariff treatment than that accorded to like goods of other WTO Members. Because such programs have been viewed as trade-expanding, however, parties to the GATT provided a legal basis for one-way tariff preferences in a 1979 decision known as the Enabling Clause. The Enabling Clause was formally incorporated into the GATT 1994 upon the entry into force of the GATT Uruguay Round agreements on January 1, 1995. […] The AGOA [African Growth and Opportunity Act] program is authorized through September 30, 2015. In December 2009, Congress extended the GSP and Andean trade preference programs to December 31, 2010, continuing an existing denial of benefits to Bolivia. While Congress did not renew the GSP program, it enacted legislation in December 2010 extending Andean trade preferences, as accorded to Colombia and Ecuador, through February 12, 2011. Andean benefits for Peru, which has been a party to a free trade agreement with the United States since February 2009, were terminated as of December 31, 2010, in the same enactment."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Jeanne J.

  2011-10-05
• Terrorism and National Security: Issues and Trends [July 22, 2011]

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  "In recent years, analysts and U.S. policymakers have noted Africa's growing strategic importance to U.S. interests. Among those interests are the increasing importance of Africa's natural resources, particularly energy resources, and mounting concern over violent extremist activities and other potential threats posed by under-governed spaces, such as maritime piracy and illicit trafficking. In addition, there is ongoing concern for Africa's many humanitarian crises, armed conflicts, and more general challenges, such as the devastating effect of HIV/AIDS. In 2006, Congress authorized a feasibility study on the creation of a new command for Africa to consolidate current operations and activities on the continent under one commander. Congress has closely monitored the command since its establishment. On February 6, 2007, the Bush Administration announced the creation of a new unified combatant command, U.S. Africa Command or AFRICOM, to promote U.S. national security objectives in Africa and its surrounding waters. Prior to AFRICOM's establishment, U.S. military involvement on the continent was divided among three commands: U.S. European Command (EUCOM), U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM), and U.S. Pacific Command (PACOM). The command's area of responsibility (AOR) includes all African countries except Egypt. AFRICOM was officially launched as a sub-unified command under EUCOM on October 1, 2007, and became a stand-alone command on October 1, 2008. DOD signaled its intention to locate AFRICOM's headquarters on the continent early in the planning process, but such a move is unlikely to take place for several years, if at all. The command will operate from Stuttgart, Germany, for the foreseeable future. DOD has stressed that there are no plans to have a significant troop presence on the continent. The East African country of Djibouti, home to the Combined Joint Task Force--Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) at Camp Lemonnier, provides the U.S. military's only enduring infrastructure in Africa."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Blanchard, Lauren Ploch

  2011-07-22