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• 'Waters of the United States' (Wotus): Current Status of the 2015 Clean Water Rule [December 12, 2018]

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  "The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the principal federal law governing pollution of the nation's surface waters. The statute protects 'navigable waters,' which it defines as 'the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas.' The scope of the term waters of the United States, or WOTUS, is not defined in the CWA. Thus, the Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have defined the term in regulations several times as part of their implementation of the act."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gatz, Laura

  2018-12-12
• Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects [December 10, 2018]

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  "When federal agencies and programs lack funding after the expiration of full-year or interim appropriations, the agencies and programs experience a funding gap. If funding does not resume in time to continue government operations, then, under the Antideficiency Act, an agency must cease operations, except in certain situations when law authorizes continued activity. Funding gaps are distinct from shutdowns, and the criteria that flow from the Antideficiency Act for determining which activities are affected by a shutdown are complex. Failure of the President and Congress to reach agreement on full-year or interim funding measures occasionally has caused shutdowns of affected federal government activities. The longest such shutdown lasted 21 full days during FY1996, from December 16, 1995, to January 6, 1996. More recently, a relatively long funding gap commenced on October 1, 2013, the first day of FY2014, after funding for the previous fiscal year expired. Because funding did not resume on October 1, affected agencies began to cease operations and furlough personnel that day. A 16-full-day shutdown ensued, the first to occur in over 17 years. Subsequently, two comparatively brief shutdowns occurred during FY2018, in January and February 2018, respectively."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Brass, Clinton T.; Brudnick, Ida A.; Keegan, Natalie; McMillion, Barry J.; Rollins, John W.; Yeh, Brian T.

  2018-12-10
• Cryptocurrency: The Economics of Money and Selected Policy Issues [December 7, 2018]

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  "In 2008, an unknown computer programmer or group of programmers using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto created a computer platform that would allow users to make valid transfers of digital representations of value. The system, called Bitcoin, is the first known cryptocurrency. A cryptocurrency is digital money in an electronic payment system in which payments are validated by a decentralized network of system users and cryptographic protocols instead of by a centralized intermediary (such as a bank). Since 2009, cryptocurrencies have gone from little-known, niche technological curiosities to rapidly proliferating financial instruments that are the subject of intense public interest. Recently, they have been incorporated into a variety of other financial transactions and products. For example, cryptocurrencies have been sold to investors to raise funding through initial coin offerings (ICOs), and the terms of certain derivatives are now based on cryptocurrencies. Some government central banks have examined the possibility of issuing cryptocurrencies or other digital currency. Media coverage of cryptocurrencies has been widespread, and various observers have characterized cryptocurrencies as either the future of monetary and payment systems that will displace government-backed currencies or a fad with little real value."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perkins, David W.

  2018-12-07
• Buprenorphine and the Opioid Crisis: A Primer for Congress [December 7, 2018]

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  "Buprenorphine is one of three medications currently used in medication-assisted treatment of opioid use disorders. As such, buprenorphine's effectiveness, safety, and availability are of considerable interest to policymakers seeking to address the ongoing opioid crisis in the United States. During the 115th Congress, committees held hearings on opioid-related topics such as implementation of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 (CARA, P.L. 114-198), the effects of the opioid crisis on families, and opioid use among veterans. Members have introduced more than 150 bills related to opioids. On October 24, 2018, President Trump signed into law H.R. 6, the Substance Use-Disorder Prevention that Promotes Opioid Recovery and Treatment for Patients and Communities Act (the SUPPORT Act; P.L. 115-271), a broad measure designed to address widespread over prescribing and abuse of opioids in the United States. Congressional actions taken in recent years to address the opioid crisis, including the SUPPORT Act, have included attempts to increase access to buprenorphine."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Duff, Johnathan H.

  2018-12-07
• Coast Guard Cutter Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress [December 7, 2018]

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  "This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on the Coast Guard's programs for procuring 8 National Security Cutters (NSCs), 25 Offshore Patrol Cutters (OPCs), and 58 Fast Response Cutters (FRCs). The Coast Guard's proposed FY2019 budget requests a total of $705 million in acquisition funding for the NSC, OPC, and FRC programs.The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Coast Guard's funding requests and acquisition strategies for the NSC, OPC, and FRC programs. Congress's decisions on these three programs could substantially affect Coast Guard capabilities and funding requirements, and the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2018-12-07
• U.S.-Mexico Economic Relations: Trends,Issues, and Implications [December 6, 2018]

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  "The U.S.-Mexico bilateral economic relationship is of key interest to the United States because of Mexico's proximity, the extensive cultural and economic ties between the two countries, and the strong economic relationship with Mexico under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The United States and Mexico share many common economic interests related to trade, investment, and regulatory cooperation. The two countries share a 2,000-mile border and have extensive interconnections through the Gulf of Mexico. There are also links through migration, tourism, environmental issues, health concerns, and family and cultural relationships. Congress has maintained an active interest on issues related to NAFTA renegotiations and the recently signed U.S.-Mexico-Canada trade agreement (USMCA); U.S.-Mexico trade and investment relations; Mexico's economic reform measures, especially in the energy sector; the Mexican 2018 presidential elections; U.S.-Mexico border management; and other related issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2018-12-06
• U.S. International Food Assistance: An Overview [December 6, 2018]

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  "The United States has played a leading role in global efforts to alleviate hunger and improve food security. Current food assistance programs originated in 1954 with the passage of what isnow named the Food for Peace Act (FFPA, P.L.83-480). This legislation, commonly referred to as 'P.L. 480,'established the Food for Peace program (FFP). Originally, FFP had multiple aims: (1) to provide food to undernourished people abroad,(2) to reduce U.S. stocks of surplus grains that had accumulated under U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) commodity support programs,and (3) to expand potential markets for U.S. food commodities. Since the end of the Cold War, U.S. food assistance goals have shifted away from the latter two aims and more toward emergency response and supporting recipient country agriculture markets."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Casey, Alyssa R.

  2018-12-06
• Venue: A Legal Analysis of Where a Federal Crime May Be Tried [December 6, 2018]

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  "The United States Constitution assures those charged with a serious federal crime that they will be prosecuted in the state and district in which the crime occurred. A crime occurs in any district in which any of its 'conduct' elements are committed. Some offenses are committed entirely within a single district; there they may be tried. Other crimes have elements that have occurred in more than one district. Still other crimes have been committed overseas and so have occurred outside any district. Statutory provisions, court rules, and judicial interpretations implement the Constitution's requirements and dictate where multi-district crimes or overseas crimes may be tried."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2018-12-06
• Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA): Resources for Frequently Asked Questions [December 6, 2018]

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  "The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA; P.L. 111-148, as amended) had numerous provisions affecting private health insurance and public health coverage programs. This report provides resources to help congressional staff respond to constituents' frequently asked questions (FAQs) about the ACA. It lists selected resources regarding consumers, employers, and other stakeholders, with a focus on federal sources. It also lists Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports that summarize the ACA's provisions. This report begins with links to contacts for constituents' specific questions on insurance coverage (such as state insurance departments and the U.S. Department of Labor's consumer hotline for questions on employer-based coverage) and contacts for questions about HealthCare.gov and ACA tax provisions. It also lists sources for congressional staff to contact federal agencies with ACA questions. The report then provides basic consumer sources, including a glossary of health coverage terms and sources for obtaining the law's full text. The next sections focus onthe individual mandate, private health insurance, exchanges,and employer-sponsored coverage. These are followed by information on public health care programs, such as Medicaid, the State Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and Medicare."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Napili, Angela

  2018-12-06
• Use of Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI) in Federal Health Programs [December 6, 2018]

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  "Certain portions of federal health programs rely on means testing for eligibility and other purposes. Medicare premiums, the individual mandate exemptions and penalties, eligibility and amounts for tax credits for health insurance exchange coverage, and Medicaid eligibility are determined, in part, using modified adjusted gross income (MAGI). MAGI is a concept that is used throughout federal tax law and certain federal programs. There is no uniform definition of MAGI; rather, the term has different definitions depending on the purpose for which it is being calculated. For each of these federal health programs, MAGI begins with adjusted gross income (AGI) as calculated for tax purposes. From there, various types of income are included (or, in the case of Medicaid, subtracted) to calculate MAGI for each particular program. The different health programs do not necessarily define household income using the same groupings of people. For example, married couples living together are counted as the same Medicaid household regardless of whether they file a joint tax return. By contrast, married couples must file a joint tax return to be eligible for premium credits."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Baumrucker, Evelyne; Davis, Patricia A.; Fernandez, Bernadette; Rosso, Ryan J.; Yeh, Brian T.

  2018-12-06
• Venue: An Abridged Legal Analysis of Where a Federal Crime May Be Tried [December 6, 2018]

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  "The United States Constitution assures those charged with a serious federal crime that they will be prosecuted in the state and district in which the crime occurred. A crime occurs in any district in which any of its 'conduct' elements are committed. Some offenses are committed entirely within a single district; there they may be tried. Other crimes have elements that have occurred in more than one district. Still other crimes have been committed overseas and so have occurred outside any district. Statutory provisions, court rules, and judicial interpretations implement the Constitution's requirements and dictate where multi-district crimes or overseas crimes may be tried. Most litigation involves either a question of whether the government's selection of venue in a multi-district case is proper or whether the court should grant the accused's request for a change of venue. The government bears the burden of establishing venue by a preponderance of the evidence. The defendant may waive trial in a proper venue either explicitly or by failing to object to prosecution in an improper venue in a timely manner."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2018-12-06
• Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy [December 4, 2018]

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  "The Bahrain government's repression has presented a policy dilemma for the United States because Bahrain is along time ally that is pivotal to maintaining Persian Gulf security. The country has hosted a U.S. naval command headquarters for the Gulf region since 1948; the United States and Bahrain have had a formal Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA) since 1991; and Bahrain was designated by the United States as a 'major non-NATO ally' in 2002. There are over 7,000 U.S. forces, mostly Navy, in Bahrain. Bahrain relies on U.S.-made arms, but, because of the government's use of force against protesters, the Obama Administration held up some new weapons sales to Bahrain and curtailed U.S. assistance to Bahrain's internal security organizations. In 2014, Bahrain joined the U.S.-led coalition against the Islamic State and flew strikes against the group's fighters in Syria that year, and has expressed willingness to join a U.S.-backed concept for a broad Arab coalition to counter Iran, the 'Middle East Strategic Alliance.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2018-12-04
• Congressional Oversight of Intelligence: Background and Selected Options for Further Reform [December 4, 2018]

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  "This report provides a review of congressional oversight of the intelligence community (IC) since establishment of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI) and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence (HPSCI), particularly since the 9-11 Commission published its recommendations in its 2004 report. It also explores selected options for further reform, and offers questions that Congress may consider to assess the effectiveness of its oversight. In legislating, confirming appointees, authorizing programs,and appropriating funds, Congress enables the IC, a community of 17 discrete intelligence elements,to conduct the business of intelligence in support of U.S. national security. In addition, Congress has perspective that few others outside of the IC have. Oversight of the IC enables Congress to determine whether classified intelligence programs that are restricted from public disclosure are legal, ethical,and respectful of civil liberties. When there have been perceived abuses, Congress has often intervened to conduct hearings and legislate changes in intelligence process or organization."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  DeVine, Michael E.

  2018-12-04
• Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy [December 4, 2018]

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  "Kuwait has been pivotal to the decades-long U.S. effort to secure the Persian Gulf region because of its consistent cooperation with U.S. military operations in the region and its key location in the northern Gulf. Kuwait and the United States have a formal Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA), under which the United States maintains over 13,000 military personnel in country and prepositioned military equipment in Kuwait to project power in the region. Only Germany, Japan, and South Korea host more U.S. troops than does Kuwait. Kuwait usually acts in concert not only with the United States but also with allies in the Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman). However, Kuwait tends to favor mediation of regional issues over commitments of military force. Kuwaitis the lead Gulf mediator of the intra-GCC rift that erupted in June 2017 when Saudi Arabia, UAE,and Bahrain moved to isolate Qatar. Kuwait hosts the operational command center for U.S.-led Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR) that has combatted the Islamic State. Refraining from intervening in Syria's civil war, Kuwait has instead hosting donor conferences for civilian victims of the conflict and providing aid to Jordan for its hosting of Syrian refugees."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2018-12-04
• Qatar: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy [December 4, 2018]

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  "The State of Qatar has employed its ample financial resources to exert regional influence separate from and independent of Saudi Arabia, the de facto leader of the alliance of six Gulf monarchies called the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Oman). Qatar has intervened in several regional conflicts, including in Syria and Libya, and has engaged both Sunni Islamist and Iran-backed Shiite groups in Lebanon, Sudan, the Gaza Strip, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Qatar has maintained consistent dialogue with Iran while also supporting U.S. and GCC efforts to limit Iran's regional influence.However, Qatar's independent policies, which include supporting regional Muslim Brotherhood organizations and establishing a global media network called Al Jazeera, have caused a backlash against Qatar by Saudi Arabia and some other GCC members. The GCC has been on the verge of dissolution since June 5, 2017, when Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Bahrain, joined by Egypt and a few other governments, severed relations with Qatar and imposed limits on the entry and transit of Qatari nationals and vessels in their territories, waters, and airspace."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2018-12-04
• Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy [December 3, 2018]

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  "An uprising against Bahrain's Al Khalifa ruling family that began on February 14, 2011, has diminished in intensity, but punishments of oppositionists and periodic demonstrations continue. The mostly Shiite opposition to the Sunni-minority-led regime has not achieved its goal of establishing a constitutional monarchy, but the unrest has compelled the ruling family to undertake some modest reforms. The mainstream opposition uses peaceful forms of dissent, but small factions, reportedly backed by Iran, have claimed responsibility for bombings and other attacks on security officials. Elections for a legislative body, held most recently during November 24-December 1, 2018, have been marred by the banning of opposition political societies and allegations of gerrymandering to prevent opposition victories."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2018-12-03
• European Union: Ongoing Challenges and Future Prospects [December 3, 2018]

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  "The European Union (EU) is a unique partnership in which member states have pooled sovereignty in certain policy areas and harmonized laws on a wide range of economic and political issues. The EU is the latest stage in a process of European integration begun after World War II, initially by six Western European countries, to promote peace, security, and economic development. The EU currently consists of 28 member states, including most of the formerly communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The EU is largely viewed as a cornerstone of European stability and prosperity. For much of the last decade, however, many EU countries have faced considerable economic difficulties. Despite an improved economic situation in the EU since 2017, economic pressures and societal changes have contributed to the rise of populist and antiestablishment political parties, at least some of which harbor anti-EU or 'euroskeptic' sentiments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Archick, Kristin

  2018-12-03
• U.S. Trade Trends and Developments [December 3, 2018]

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  "The United States is the world's biggest economy (in nominal dollars), leading trading nation(goods and services), and largest source of and destination for foreign direct investment. The U.S. output of goods and services, or gross domestic product (GDP), totaled $19.5 trillion in 2017. That is almost the combined GDP of the next three largest economies. All told, the United States, with close to 5% of the world's population, accounted for almost 25% of the world's output and more than 16% of its growth in 2017. While the United States is the world's largest exporter (goods and services combined), U.S. exports are overshadowed by the large U.S. demand for imported products. However, the level of both U.S. exports and imports of goods and services depends on many interrelated domestic and international factors, including the value of the U.S. dollar relative to other currencies, global demand for other dollar-denominated assets--including U.S. Treasury securities, and the relative strength of the U.S. and world economies. While the United States is still by far the dominant economy in the world, its relative position has shifted in the past two decades."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schwarzenberg , Andres B.

  2018-12-03
• Transportation Spending Under an Earmark Ban [December 3, 2018]

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  "Since the beginning of the 112th Congress, convened in January 2011, the House and Senate have observed a ban on earmarks, formally known as congressionally directed spending. The ban has led to changes in the way transportation funding decisions are made. This report explains what earmarks are and discusses their use in surface transportation finance. It then discusses how federal transportation funding is distributed with a ban in place and how Members of Congress might influence the distribution."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kirk, Robert S.; Mallett, William J.; Peterman, David Randall

  2018-12-03
• National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP): Issues in Brief [December 3, 2018]

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  "Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These agencies assess U.S. earthquake hazards, deliver notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes.Congressional oversight of the NEHRP program encompasses how well the four agencies coordinate their activities to address the earthquake hazard. Better coordination was a concern that led to changes to the program in legislation enacted in 2004 (the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act of 2004; P.L. 108-360; 42 U.S.C. 7704)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2018-12-03
• Public Health and Other Related Provisions in P.L 115-271, the SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act [December 3, 2018]

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  "On October 24, 2018, President Donald J. Trump signed into law H.R. 6, the Substance Use-Disorder Prevention that Promotes Opioid Recovery and Treatment for Patients and Communities Act (P.L. 115-271; SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act, or the SUPPORT Act). The final agreement on the bill was approved by the House 393-8 on September 28, 2018,and cleared by the Senate by a vote of 98-1 on October 3, 2018. Over the past several years, there has been growing concern among the public and lawmakers in the United States about rising drug overdose deaths. Opioid overdose deaths, in particular, have increased significantly in the past 15 years. In 2015, an estimated 33,091 Americans died of opioid-related overdoses. Provisional data for 2017 estimate 49,068 deaths involving opioids, representing a fourfold increase over 2002 during the beginning of the epidemic. In October of 2017, President Trump declared the opioid epidemic a national public health emergency."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Heisler, Elayne J., 1976-; Duff, Johnathan H.; Bradley, David H.; Christensen, Michelle D.; Elliott, Victoria L.; Finklea, Kristin; Green, Victoria R.; Heniff, Bill; James, Nathan; Lister, Sarah A.; Peterman, David Randall; Rosso, Ryan J.; Sacco, Lisa N.; Sarata, Amanda K.; Sekar, Kevya; Staman, Jennifer A.; Stoltzfus, Emilie

  2018-12-03
• Presidential Funerals and Burials: Selected Resources [December 3, 2018]

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  "This fact sheet is a brief resource guide for congressional staff on funerals and burials for Presidents of the United States. It contains an overview of past practices for presidential funerals and selected online information resources related to official and ceremonial protocols, past presidential funerals,congressional documents,and other documents and books."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kreiser, Maria; Mast, Brent W.

  2018-12-03
• National Monuments and the Antiquities Act [November 30, 2018]

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  "The Antiquities Act of 1906 authorizes the President to proclaim national monuments on federal lands that contain 'historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest.' The President is to reserve 'the smallest area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be protected.' Congress subsequently limited the President's authority by requiring congressional authorization for extensions or establishment of monuments in Wyoming, and by making withdrawals in Alaska exceeding 5,000 acres subject to congressional approval. The Antiquities Act was a response to concerns over theft from and destruction of archaeological sites and was designed to provide an expeditious means to protect federal lands and resources. President Theodore Roosevelt used the authority in 1906 to establish Devils Tower in Wyoming as the first national monument. Seventeen of the 20 Presidents since 1906 created 158 monuments, including the Grand Canyon, Grand Teton, Zion, Olympic, Statue of Liberty, and Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used his authority the most often (36 times), and President Obama proclaimed the most monument acreage (about 554 million, primarily in two expanded marine monuments)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hardy Vincent, Carol

  2018-11-30
• State Sponsors of Acts of International Terrorism-Legislative Parameters: In Brief [November 30, 2018]

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  "Iran, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria are identified by the U.S. government as countries with governments that support acts of international terrorism. While it is the President's authority to designate, and remove from designation, terrorist states, Congress has some legislative authority to weigh in as the reviews proceed.In recent years, other foreign policy and national security decisions have butted up against the designation: to delist Cuba in the course of normalizing other aspects of the bilateral relationship;to enter into a multilateral agreement involving Iran's nuclear weapons pursuits that required the United States to lift some sanctions; and to redesignate the government of North Korea as a state sponsor of terrorism in the midst, or as part, of seeking countermeasures to that state's nuclear and missile ambitions.This brief report provides information on legislation that authorizes the designation of a foreign government as a state sponsor of acts of international terrorism. It addresses the statutes and how they each define acts of international terrorism; establish a list to limit or prohibit aid or trade; provide for systematic removal of a foreign government from a list, including timeline and reporting requirements; authorize the President to waive restrictions on a listed foreign government; and provide (or do not provide) Congress with a means to block a delisting. It closes with a summary of delisting in the past."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rennack, Dianne E.

  2018-11-30
• World Trade Organization: Overview and Future Direction [November 29, 2018]

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  "The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that administers the trade rules and agreements negotiated by its 164 members to eliminate trade barriers and create nondiscriminatory rules to govern trade. It also serves as an important forum for resolving trade disputes. The United States was a major force behind the establishment of the WTO in 1995 and the rules and agreements that resulted from the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations (1986-1994). The WTO encompassed and expanded on the commitments and institutional functions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was established in 1947 by the United States and 22 other nations. Through the GATT and WTO, the United States and other countries sought to establish a more open, rules-based trading system in the postwar era, with the goal of fostering international economic cooperation, stability,and prosperity worldwide. Today, the vast majority of world trade, approximately 98%, takes place among WTO members."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cimino-Isaacs, Cathleen D.; Fefer, Rachel F.; Fergusson, Ian F.

  2018-11-29
• Commercial Space: Federal Regulation, Oversight, and Utilization [November 29, 2018]

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  "U.S. industry has always been involved in spaceflight. Contractors for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) built the spacecraft that took astronauts to the Moon. Contractors build reconnaissance satellites for the Department of Defense (DOD) and weather satellites for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Increasingly, though, space is becoming commercial. A majority of U.S. satellites are now commercially owned, providing commercial services, and launched by commercial launch providers. Congressional and public interest in space is also becoming more focused on commercial activities, such as companies developing reusable rockets or collecting business data with fleets of small Earth-imaging satellites."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morgan, Daniel

  2018-11-29
• Brexit at a Pivotal Moment [November 28, 2018]

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  "Four months away from the United Kingdom's (UK's) expected withdrawal from the European Union (EU), discord and uncertainty remain central themes in the analysis of 'Brexit.' The efforts of UK and EU negotiators to reconcile a complex set of competing interests and preferences have produced a 585-page draft withdrawal agreement and a 26- page political declaration on the future UK-EU relationship. EU leaders signed off on the deal in late November 2018, leaving a vote by the European Parliament as the final step for approval by the EU before the March 29, 2019, withdrawal date. In the UK, however, pronounced divisions remain about how Brexit should look. The withdrawal agreement faces a crucial test when the UK Parliament votes on whether to approve it, a vote expected to occur on December 11, 2018."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mix, Derek E.

  2018-11-28
• U.S. Sanctions on Russia [November 28, 2018]

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  "Sanctions are considered by many to be a central element of U.S. policy to counter Russian malign behavior, including Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2014, election interference and cyberattacks, human rights abuses, illicit trade with North Korea, support to the government of Syria, and use of a chemical weapon. The United States also employs sanctions in an effort to deter further objectionable activities by Russia (e.g., expanding the war in Ukraine or launching new attacks in neighboring countries). Most Members of Congress support a robust use of sanctions amid concerns about Russia's international behavior and geostrategic intentions. Most Russia-related sanctions implemented by the United States have been levied in response to Russia's 2014 invasion of Ukraine. These sanctions are based on national emergency authorities granted the office of the President in the National Emergencies Act (NEA; P.L. 94-412; 50 U.S.C. 1621) and International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA; P.L. 95-223; 50 U.S.C. 1701) and were exercised by President Barack Obama in 2014 in a series of executive orders (EOs 13660, 13661, 13662, and 13685). The Obama and Trump Administrations have used these EOs to impose sanctions on approximately 650 Russian individuals and entities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M.; Rennack, Dianne E.

  2018-11-28
• U.S. Tariff Policy: Overview [November 28, 2018]

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  "A tariff is a customs duty levied on imported and exported goods and services. Historically, countries used tariffs as a primary means of collecting revenue. Today, other taxes account for most government revenue in developed countries. Tariffs are now typically used to protect domestic industries or as leverage in trade negotiations and disputes. The U.S. Constitution empowers Congress to set tariffs, a power that it has partially delegated to the President. The United States is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and a party to 14 free trade agreements (FTAs), which include specific tariff-related commitments. Congress and the President thus create U.S. tariff policy within the context of a rules-based global trading system."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Casey, Christopher A.

  2018-11-28
• 'National Security Exception' and the World Trade Organization [November 28, 2018]

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  "Recent international trade disputes between the United States and other Members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) have raised thorny questions about the relationship between national sovereignty and the multilateral rules-based trading system. In response to the Trump Administration's imposition of tariffs on U.S. imports of certain steel and aluminum products pursuant to authority provided in Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, several WTO Members have brought dispute settlement cases against the United States. The complaining parties, which include Canada, China, and the European Union, among others, have argued that the Section 232 measures, along with exemptions from the application of these measures for certain countries, are contrary to U.S. obligations in the WTO agreements. Many of these obligations are contained within various provisions in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO's foundational agreement governing parties' international trade in goods. In retaliation to the Administration's tariffs, some of the complaining countries have imposed tariffs on certain U.S. exports without awaiting the outcome of WTO dispute settlement proceedings. These retaliatory measures, in turn, have been challenged by the United States at the WTO."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Murrill, Brandon J.

  2018-11-28