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Colombia: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated February 8, 2019]
"A key U.S. ally in the Latin American region, Colombia endured an internal armed conflict for half a century. Drug trafficking fueled the violence by funding both left-wing and right-wing armed groups. Some analysts feared Colombia would become a failed state in the late 1990s, but the Colombian government devised a new security strategy, known as Plan Colombia, to counter the insurgencies. Originally designed as a 6-year program, Plan Colombia ultimately became a 17-year U.S.-Colombian bilateral effort. The partnership focused initially on counternarcotics and later on counterterrorism; it then broadened to include sustainable development, human rights, trade, regional security, and many other areas of cooperation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Beittel, June S.
2019-02-08
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Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview [Updated February 8, 2019]
"Since the early 1960s, when the United States imposed a trade embargo on Cuba, the centerpiece of U.S. policy toward Cuba has consisted of economic sanctions aimed at isolating the Cuban government. In December 2014, however, the Obama Administration initiated a major policy shift, moving away from sanctions toward a policy of engagement and the normalization of relations. The policy change included the rescission of Cuba's designation as a state sponsor of international terrorism in May 2015; the restoration of diplomatic relations in July 2015; and steps to increase travel, commerce, and the flow of information to Cuba. President Trump unveiled a new policy toward Cuba in 2017 increasing sanctions and partially rolling back some of the Obama Administration's efforts to normalize relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2019-02-08
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Russian Compliance with the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated February 8, 2019]
"The United States and Soviet Union signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in December 1987. Negotiations on this treaty were the result of a 'dual-track' decision taken by NATO in 1979 in response to concerns about the Soviet Union's deployment of new intermediate-range nuclear missiles. NATO agreed both to accept deployment of new U.S. intermediate-range ballistic and cruise missiles and to support U.S. efforts to negotiate with the Soviet Union to limit these missiles. In the INF Treaty, the United States and Soviet Union agreed that they would ban all land-based ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers. The ban would apply to missiles with nuclear or conventional warheads, but would not apply to sea-based or air-delivered missiles."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2019-02-08
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated February 7, 2019]
The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic territorial disputes; commercial shipping through the Arctic; Arctic oil, gas, and mineral exploration; endangered Arctic species; and increased military operations in the Arctic could cause the region in coming years to become an arena of international cooperation or competition. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial political, economic, energy, environmental, and other interests in the region. Decisions that Congress makes on Arctic-related issues could significantly affect these interests. This report provides an overview of Arctic-related issues for Congress, and refers readers to more in-depth CRS reports on specific Arctic-related issues. Congressional readers with questions about an issue discussed in this report should contact the author or authors of the section discussing that issue. The authors are identified by footnote at the start of each section. This report does not track legislation on specific Arctic-related issues. For tracking of legislative activity, see the CRS reports relating to specific Arctic-related issues that are listed at the end of this report, just prior to Appendix A.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin); Frittelli, John; Humphries, Marc; Leggett, Jane A.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Upton, Harold F. (Harold Frank)
2019-02-07
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Fact Sheet on Leaders and Elections [Updated February 7, 2019]
"This report provides the results of recent presidential elections in Latin America and the Caribbean. Below are three tables organized by region, including the date of each country's independence, the name of the newly elected president or prime minister, and the projected date of the next presidential election. Information in this report was gathered from numerous sources, including the U.S. State Department, Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA's) World Fact Book, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Election Guide, Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and other news sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davis-Castro, Carla Y.; DeBruyne, Nese F.
2019-02-07
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Iran's Nuclear Program: Tehran's Compliance with International Obligations [Updated February 7, 2019]
"Iran ratified the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1970. Article III of the treaty requires non-nuclear-weapon states-parties to accept comprehensive International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards; Tehran concluded a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the IAEA in 1974. In 2002, the agency began investigating allegations that Iran had conducted clandestine nuclear activities; the IAEA ultimately reported that some of these activities had violated Tehran's safeguards agreement. Following more than three years of investigation, the IAEA Board of Governors referred the matter to the U.N. Security Council in February 2006. Since then, the council adopted six resolutions requiring Iran to take steps to alleviate international concerns about its nuclear program. This report provides a brief overview of Iran's nuclear program and describes the legal basis for the actions taken by the IAEA board and the Security Council."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.
2019-02-07
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Past Government Shutdowns: Key Resources [Updated February 7, 2019]
"This report provides historical documents and other resources related to past government shutdowns, along with brief annotations that describe the contents of the documents. The report includes links to full-text documents when available. There is limited information and guidance related to shutdowns, and it is difficult to predict what might happen in the event of one, but information about past events may help inform future deliberations. The following annotated resources are meant to guide readers to relevant materials from governmental and selected nongovernmental sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nagel, Jared Conrad; Murray, Justin
2019-02-07
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Navy Ford (CVN-78) Class Aircraft Carrier Program: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated February 6, 2019]
"This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on the Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) class aircraft carrier program. The Navy's proposed FY2019 budget requests a total of $1,598.2 million in procurement funding for the program. Congress's decisions on the CVN-78 program could substantially affect Navy capabilities and funding requirements and the shipbuilding industrial base."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2019-02-06
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Navy Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) Program: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated February 6, 2019]
"This report provides background information and issues for Congress on the Aegis ballistic missile defense (BMD) program, which is carried out by the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) and the Navy, and gives Navy Aegis cruisers and destroyers a capability for conducting BMD operations. The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify Department of Defense (DOD) acquisition strategies and proposed funding levels for the Aegis BMD program. Congress's decisions on the Aegis BMD program could significantly affect U.S. BMD capabilities and funding requirements, and the BMD-related industrial base."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2019-02-06
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Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy [Updated February 5, 2019]
"An uprising against Bahrain's Al Khalifa ruling family that began on February 14, 2011, has diminished in intensity, but punishments of oppositionists and periodic demonstrations continue. The mostly Shia opposition to the Sunni-minority-led regime has not achieved its goal of establishing a constitutional monarchy, but the unrest has compelled the ruling family to undertake some modest reforms. The mainstream opposition uses peaceful forms of dissent, but small factions, reportedly backed by Iran, have claimed responsibility for attacks on security officials. Elections for a legislative body, held most recently during November 24-December 1, 2018, were marred by the banning of opposition political societies and allegations of gerrymandering to prevent opposition victories, but observers praised the newly elected lower house of the Assembly for naming a woman as its speaker."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2019-02-05
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Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (P.l. 115-253) and U.S. Aid for the Palestinians [Updated February 5, 2019]
"The Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act (ATCA, P.L. 115-253) became law on October 3, 2018. Congress passed the law in the wake of a U.S. federal court case dealing with past acts of terrorism by Palestinians (discussed below, 'U.S. Policy Implications and Options'). The law amended the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) (at 18 U.S.C. 2334) by stating that a defendant consents to personal jurisdiction in U.S. federal court for lawsuits related to international terrorism if the defendant accepts certain types of U.S. foreign aid after the law has been in effect for 120 days. In December, Palestinian Authority (PA) Prime Minister Rami Hamdallah wrote to Secretary of State Mike Pompeo that the PA would not accept aid that subjected it to federal court jurisdiction. Consequently, U.S. bilateral aid to the Palestinians ended on January 31, 2019. Apparently, it will not resume unless Congress amends or repeals the ATCA, or the Administration channels the aid differently."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim
2019-02-05
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History, Evolution, and Practices of the President's State of the Union Address: Frequently Asked Questions [Updated February 5, 2019]
"The State of the Union address is a communication from the President to Congress in which the chief executive reports on the current condition of the United States and provides policy proposals for the upcoming legislative year. The address originates in the Constitution (Article II, Section 3, clause 1), which requires that the President 'shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.' [...] This report takes the format of answers to frequently asked questions about the State of the Union address."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kreiser, Maria; Greene, Michael
2019-02-05
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LNG as a Maritime Fuel: Prospects and Policy [Updated February 5, 2019]
"The combination of growing supplies of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and new requirements for less polluting fuels in the international maritime shipping industry has heightened interest in LNG as a maritime fuel. For decades, LNG tanker ships have been capable of burning boil-off gas from their LNG cargoes as a secondary fuel. However, using LNG as a primary fuel is a relatively new endeavor; the first LNG-powered vessel--a Norwegian ferry--began service in 2000. [...] This report discusses impending International Maritime Organization (IMO) standards limiting the maximum sulfur content in shipping fuels, the market conditions in which LNG may compete to become a common bunker fuel for vessel operators, and the current status of LNG bunkering globally and in the United States. A broader discussion of oil market implications is outside the scope of this report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parfomak, Paul W.; Frittelli, John; Lattannzio, Richard K.; Ratner, Michael
2019-02-05
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Navy Ship Names: Background for Congress [Updated February 5, 2019]
"Names for Navy ships traditionally have been chosen and announced by the Secretary of the Navy, under the direction of the President and in accordance with rules prescribed by Congress. Rules for giving certain types of names to certain types of Navy ships have evolved over time. There have been exceptions to the Navy's ship-naming rules, particularly for the purpose of naming a ship for a person when the rule for that type of ship would have called for it to be named for something else. Some observers have perceived a breakdown in, or corruption of, the rules for naming Navy ships. On July 13, 2012, the Navy submitted to Congress a 73-page report on the Navy's policies and practices for naming ships."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2019-02-05
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Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview [Updated February 4, 2019]
"The Antideficiency Act (31 U.S.C. 1341-1342, 1511-1519) generally bars the obligation of funds in the absence of appropriations. Exceptions are made under the act, including for activities involving 'the safety of human life or the protection of property.' The interval during the fiscal year when appropriations for a particular project or activity are not enacted into law, either in the form of a regular appropriations act or a continuing resolution (CR), is referred to as a 'funding gap' or 'funding lapse'. Although funding gaps may occur at the start of the fiscal year, they may also occur any time a CR expires and another CR (or the regular appropriations bill) is not enacted immediately thereafter. Multiple funding gaps may occur within a fiscal year."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Saturno, James
2019-02-04
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Foodborne Illnesses and Outbreaks from Fresh Produce [February 4, 2019]
"The produce industry continues to be associated with a series of foodborne illness outbreaks across multiple U.S. states and Canada, resulting in hundreds of illnesses and hospitalizations, as well as kidney failure and death in some cases. Many in Congress have expressed concern that foodborne illness outbreaks are continuing to occur despite ongoing regulatory oversight by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and state public health authorities and given the enhanced authorities and resources provided to food safety officials following the enactment of comprehensive food safety legislation as part of the FDA Food Safety Modernization Act in 2010 (FSMA, P.L. 111353)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Renée
2019-02-04
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Is the Trump Administration Rethinking Title VI? [February 4, 2019]
"This Sidebar unpacks the legal considerations that may be informing the Trump Administration's recent actions, explaining why ED and DOJ found the Obama Administration's school-discipline guidance incompatible with Title VI, and what that view might say about how the Trump Administration will seek to enforce Title VI both within and beyond the classroom."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hsin, JD S.
2019-02-04
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Iran Sanctions [Updated February 4, 2019]
"U.S. sanctions have been used extensively by successive Administrations to try to change Iran's behavior. Sanctions had a substantial effect on Iran's economy and on some major strategic decisions, but little or no effect on Iran's regional malign activities. During 2012-2015, when the global community was relatively united in pressuring Iran, Iran's economy shrank as its crude oil exports fell by more than 50%, and Iran had limited ability to utilize its $120 billion in assets held abroad. The 2015 multilateral nuclear accord (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA) provided Iran broad relief from the international and U.S. secondary sanctions as the Obama Administration waived relevant sanctions, revoked relevant executive orders (E.O.s), and corresponding U.N. and EU sanctions were lifted. Remaining in place were a general ban on U.S. trade with Iran and sanctions imposed on Iran's support for regional governments and armed factions, its human rights abuses, its efforts to acquire missile and advanced conventional weapons capabilities, and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2019-02-04
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Navy Frigate (FFG[X]) Program: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated February 4, 2019]
"This report provides background information and discusses potential issues for Congress regarding the Navy's FFG(X) program, a program to procure a new class of 20 guided-missile frigates (FFGs). The Navy wants to procure the first FFG(X) in FY2020. The Navy's proposed FY2019 budget requests $134.8 million in research and development funding for the program. The FFG(X) program presents several potential oversight issues for Congress. Congress's decisions on the program could affect Navy capabilities and funding requirements and the shipbuilding industrial base. This report focuses on the FFG(X) program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2019-02-04
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Nigeria: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated February 1, 2019]
"Successive Administrations have described the U.S. relationship with Nigeria, Africa's largest producer of oil and its largest economy, to be among the most important on the continent. The country is Africa's most populous, with more than 200 million people, roughly evenly divided between Muslims and Christians. Nigeria, which transitioned from military to civilian rule in 1999, ranked for years among the top suppliers of U.S. oil imports, and it is a major recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The country is the United States' second-largest trading partner in Africa and the third-largest beneficiary of U.S. foreign direct investment on the continent. Nigerians comprise the largest African diaspora group in the United States. [...] U.S.-Nigeria relations under the Trump Administration appear generally consistent with U.S. policy under the Obama Administration. Both Administrations have supported reform initiatives in Nigeria, including anticorruption efforts, economic and electoral reforms, energy sector privatization, and programs to promote peace and development. Congress oversees more than $500 million in U.S. foreign aid programs in Nigeria and regularly monitors political developments; some Members have expressed concern with corruption, human rights abuses, and violent extremism in Nigeria."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Lauren Ploch; Husted, Tomas F.
2019-02-01
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General and Flag Officers in the U.S. Armed Forces: Background and Considerations for Congress [Updated February 1, 2019]
"In the exercise of its constitutional authority over the Armed Forces, Congress has enacted an array of laws which govern important aspects of military officer personnel management, including appointments, assignments, grade structure, promotions, and separations. Some of these laws are directed specifically at the most senior military officers, known as general and flag officers (GFOs). Congress periodically reviews these laws and considers changes as it deems appropriate. Areas of congressional interest have included the number of GFOs authorized, the proportion of GFOs to the total force, compensation levels of GFOs, and duties and grades of certain GFOs. [...] This report provides an overview of active duty GFOs in the United States Armed Forces-- including authorizations, duties, and compensation--historical trends in the proportion of GFOs relative to the total force, criticisms and justifications of GFO to total force proportions, and statutory controls. National Guard and Reserve GFOs are not addressed in this report, unless they are serving on active duty in a manner that counts against the active duty caps on GFOs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kapp, Lawrence
2019-02-01
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Congress and the War in Yemen: Oversight and Legislation 2015-2019 [Updated February 1, 2019]
"This product provides an overview of the role Congress has played in shaping U.S. policy toward the conflict in Yemen. Summary tables provide information on legislative proposals considered in the 115th and 116th Congresses. Various legislative proposals have reflected a range of congressional perspectives and priorities, including with regard to 1. the authorization of the activities of the U.S. Armed Forces related to the conflict; 2. the extent of U.S. logistical, material, advisory, and intelligence support for the coalition led by Saudi Arabia; 3. the approval, disapproval, or conditioning of U.S. arms sales to Saudi Arabia; 4. the appropriation of funds for U.S. operations in support of the Saudi-led coalition; 5. the conduct of the Saudi-led coalition's air campaign and its adherence to international humanitarian law and the laws of armed conflict; 6. the demand for greater humanitarian access to Yemen; 7. the call for a wider government assessment of U.S. policy toward Yemen and U.S. support to parties to the conflict; 8. the nature and extent of U.S.-Saudi counterterrorism and border security cooperation; and 9. the role of Iran in supplying missile technology and other weapons to the forces of the Houthi movement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2019-02-01
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Declarations Under the National Emergencies Act, Part 1: Declarations Currently in Effect [February 1, 2019]
"This Sidebar--the first of a two-part series identifying declarations issued under the National Emergencies Act, provides a Table identifying national emergency declarations that are currently in effect as of February 1, 2019 [...]. The Table notes when later Executive Orders or Presidential Proclamations modified the initial executive action in which a national emergency was declared. The Table also lists statutory authorities cited to support the initial Executive Order or Presidential Proclamation, along with statutory authorities expressly cited in those documents as the legal basis for actions taken in response to the declared emergency. Finally, the Table identifies the date when the declared emergency was last extended or, if it has not been extended, the date when it is currently set to expire."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Roberts, Emily E.
2019-02-01
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Declarations under the National Emergencies Act, Part 2: Declarations No Longer in Effect [February 1, 2019]
This Sidebar-the second of a two-part series identifying declarations issued under the National Emergencies Act, provides a Table identifying national emergency declarations that are no longer in effect as of February 1, 2019 [...]. The Table also lists statutory authorities cited to support the initial Executive Order or Presidential Proclamation, along with statutory authorities expressly cited in those documents as the legal basis for actions taken in response to the declared emergency. Finally, the Table identifies the executive action that ended the declared emergency.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Roberts, Emily E.
2019-02-01
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Evaluating Possible U.S. Troop Withdrawals from Hostile Areas [February 1, 2019]
"On December 19, 2018, President Trump announced his intention to withdraw U.S. forces from Syria within 30 days, although Administration officials subsequently suggested that the process could take several months. Subsequent press articles indicated that the White House is also considering withdrawing 'up to half' of U.S. forces in Afghanistan in the coming months, although at the time of writing the Trump Administration has stated it has not yet ordered any such withdrawal. More recently, the United States has been negotiating with Afghan Taliban representatives regarding the conditions upon which, if met, American forces might withdraw from Afghanistan. Opinions vary as whether these negotiations might lead to a successful settlement. Regardless, the suggestion that the United States might curtail its military operational commitment to those theaters raises a number of issues which may be of interest to Congress. In particular, from a strategic perspective, when is a withdrawal from a military operation appropriate?"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McInnis, Kathleen J.
2019-02-01
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Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues [Updated February 1, 2019]
"The Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is one of the most-tracked single accounts funded by Congress each year. Managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), it is the primary source of funding for the federal government's domestic general disaster relief programs. These programs, authorized under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, as amended (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.), outline the federal role in supporting state, local, tribal, and territorial governments as they respond to and recover from a variety of incidents. They take effect in the event that nonfederal levels of government find their own capacity to deal with an incident is overwhelmed. [...] This report introduces the DRF and outlines how its resources are made available through a series of simple questions, presents a brief history of the federal government's involvement in domestic disaster relief, describes how the request for general disaster relief funding has been formulated over time, and examines the congressional response to those requests. It also provides the funding history for the DRF, and discusses several issues before Congress connected to the fund and the general disaster relief programs it supports"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Painter, William L.
2019-02-01
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'Migrant Protection Protocols': Legal Issues Related to DHS's Plan to Require Arriving Asylum Seekers to Wait in Mexico [February 1, 2019]
"Through two press releases posted on its website--the first on December 20, 2018, and the second on January 24, 2019--the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has announced a new policy that could require many asylum seekers who arrive at the southern border to wait in Mexico while U.S. immigration courts process their cases. DHS calls the new policy the 'Migrant Protection Protocols' (MPP) and contends that it will serve to address a 'security and humanitarian crisis on the Southern border.' Details about the policy's implementation are still developing. A DHS memorandum indicates that the MPP went into effect at the San Ysidro port of entry (south of San Diego) on January 28, 2019, and that DHS anticipates expanding implementation of the new policy 'in the near future.' According to media reports, DHS first returned an asylum seeker to Mexico under the policy on January 29, 2019, when it returned to Tijuana one Honduran national who presented himself at San Ysidro. The next day, DHS returned about a dozen more asylum seekers to Tijuana from San Ysidro, according to a report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Harrington, Ben
2019-02-01
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Immigration: 'Recalcitrant' Countries and the Use of Visa Sanctions to Encourage Cooperation with Alien Removals [Updated February 1, 2019]
"The ability to repatriate foreign nationals (aliens) who violate U.S. immigration law is central to the immigration enforcement system. The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) provides broad authority to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ) to remove certain foreign nationals from the United States. Any foreign national found to be inadmissible or deportable under the grounds specified in the INA may be ordered removed. Those ordered removed may include unauthorized aliens (i.e., foreign nationals who enter without inspection, enter with fraudulent documents, or enter legally but overstay their temporary visas). Lawfully present foreign nationals who commit crimes or certain other acts may also be subject to removal. To effectuate a removal, the alien's country of citizenship must confirm the alien's nationality, issue travel documents, and accept his or her physical return by commercial flight or, where necessary, charter flight."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wilson, Jill H.
2019-02-01
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Public Safety Officers' Benefits (PSOB) and Public Safety Officers' Educational Assistance (PSOEA) Programs [Updated February 1, 2019]
"The Public Safety Officers' Benefits (PSOB) program provides cash benefits to federal, state, and local law enforcement officers; firefighters; employees of emergency management agencies; and members of emergency medical services agencies who are killed or permanently and totally disabled as the result of personal injuries sustained in the line of duty. The Public Safety Officers' Educational Assistance (PSOEA) program, a component of the PSOB program, provides higher-education assistance to the children and spouses of public safety officers killed or permanently disabled in the line of duty. Both programs are administered by the PSOB Office of the Department of Justice (DOJ), Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Szymendera, Scott D.
2019-02-01
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Background Ozone: Challenges in Science and Policy [Updated January 31, 2019]
"Exposure to ozone, a common air pollutant, has been linked to early death, plant and crop damage, and damage to property. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to protect human health and welfare with, by law, a 'margin of safety.' States that contain areas with ozone concentrations above these standards must develop plans to reduce emissions and improve air quality. However, states have direct control only over emission sources located within their borders. [...] Some Members of Congress have expressed interest in adverse health effects that occur at or below the current standard, challenges some nonattainment areas may have in meeting current standards, and particularly the responsibilities for meeting the health standard, given interstate and international transport. EPA's review of the ozone NAAQS is underway and set to be completed in 2020, with background ozone contributions suggested as a topic to be addressed. Congress may have an interest in better understanding scientific capabilities, needs, and efforts to improve understanding of contributions from background sources, as well as options for regulatory responses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Thompson, Tammy M
2019-01-31
