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Critical Infrastructures: Background, Policy, and Implementation [Updated December 17, 2002]
"The nations health, wealth, and security rely on the production and distribution of certain goods and services. The array of physical assets, processes and organizations across which these goods and services move are called critical infrastructures (e.g. electricity, the power plants that generate it, and the electric grid upon which it is distributed). Computers and communications, themselves critical infrastructures, are increasingly tying these infrastructures together. There has been growing concern that this reliance on computers and computer networks raises the vulnerability of the nations critical infrastructures to 'cyber' attacks. In May 1998, President Clinton released Presidential Decision Directive No. 63. The Directive set up groups within the federal government to develop and implement plans that would protect government-operated infrastructures and called for a dialogue between government and the private sector to develop a National Infrastructure Assurance Plan that would protect all of the nations critical infrastructures by the year 2003. While the Directive called for both physical and cyber protection from both man-made and natural events, implementation focused on cyber protection against man-made cyber events (i.e. computer hackers). However, given the physical damage caused by the September 11 attacks and the subsequent impact on the communications, finance, and transportation services, physical protections of critical infrastructures is receiving greater attention."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.
2002-12-17
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Homeland Security Department: U.S. Department of Agriculture Issues [Updated December 16, 2002]
From the Summary: "The President originally proposed (in June 2002) that all of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) -- including the Plum Island Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostics Laboratory -- be transferred into the new Department's Office of Border and Transportation Security to support its counter-terrorism mission. APHIS is responsible for protecting U.S. agriculture from foreign pests and diseases and posts inspectors at about 125 ports of entry around the country. [...] The House Select Committee on Homeland Security incorporated these changes into an amended version of the President's proposal, which it reported out and the full House passed in July 2002 (H.R. 5005). The amended proposal specified that only the APHIS border inspection employees would be transferred to DHS, and that the USDA Secretary would retain considerable authority over their activities and funding. The bill also included the transfer of the Plum Island lab to DHS. Section 421 of P.L. 107-296 authorizes the transfer of no more than 3,200 APHIS border inspection personnel to DHS, along with the Plum Island lab."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rawson, Jean M.
2002-12-16
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Intelligence Issues for Congress [Updated December 16, 2002]
"The U.S. Intelligence Community continues to adjust to the post-Cold War environment. Congressional and executive branch initiatives have emphasized enhancing cooperation among the different agencies that comprise the Community by giving greater managerial authority to the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). Priority continues to be placed on intelligence support to military operations and on involvement in efforts to combat narcotics trafficking and, especially since September 11, 2001, international terrorism. Growing concerns about transnational threats are leading to increasingly close cooperation between intelligence and law enforcement agencies. This relationship is complicated, however, by differing roles and missions as well as statutory charters."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2002-12-16
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Terrorism in Southeast Asia [December 13, 2002]
Following the defeat of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, U.S. attention has
turned to radical Islamist groups in Southeast Asia, particularly those in the
Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore that are known or alleged to have
ties to the Al Qaeda terrorist network. For more than a decade, Al Qaeda has
penetrated the region by establishing local cells, training Southeast Asians in its
camps in Afghanistan, and by financing and cooperating with indigenous radical
Islamist groups. Indonesia and the southern Philippines have been particularly
vulnerable to penetration by anti-American Islamic terrorist groups.
One such network, Jemaah Islamiya, is known to have assisted two of Al
Qaeda's September 11, 2001 hijackers and is suspected of plotting attacks against
Western targets, including the October 12, 2002 bombing in Bali, Indonesia that
killed nearly 200 people, mostly Western tourists. Some analysts fear that the Bali
attack may represent a shift in tactics, from targeting Western military and
government installations to focusing on "softer" targets such as tourist resorts,
Western business, and schools serving Westerners.
However, these governments have to balance these security concerns with
domestic political considerations. Although proponents of violent, radical Islam
remain a small minority in Southeast Asia, many governments view increased
American pressure and military presence in their region with ambivalence because
of the political sensitivity of the issue with both mainstream Islamic and secular
nationalist groups.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2002-12-13
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Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [December 12, 2002]
"International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-
2002-12-12
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Homeland Security - Reducing the Vulnerability of Public and Private Information Infrastructures to Terrorism: An Overview [Updated December 12, 2002]
"This report assesses the impact of the September 11, 2001 attacks on public and private information infrastructures in the context of critical infrastructure protection, continuity of operations (COOP) planning, and homeland security. Analysis of the effects of the terrorist attacks suggests various "lessons learned." These lessons support three general principles. The first principle emphasizes the establishment and practice of comprehensive continuity and recovery plans. One lesson learned in this area is to augment disaster recovery plans...A second lesson is the need to back up data and applications. Without a comprehensive backup system that captures more than just an organization's data files, a significant amount of time can be lost trying to recreate applications, organize data, and reestablish user access...The lesson of decentralizing operations can be applied to the structure and location of an organization's operations...Another lesson in this area is to ensure the ability to communicate with internal and external constituencies. In the event of an emergency, the demand for information skyrockets. An organization not only needs to communicate with employees regarding actions and procedures, but also with the citizens and customers to whom it is responsible for providing goods and services. The third principle involves the institutionalization of system redundancies to eliminate single points of weakness. In this context, the lesson of employing redundant service providers is applied primarily to telecommunications services...Another related lesson learned is the use of generic replaceable technology. In the event of a catastrophe, the ability to replace equipment quickly with easy-to-find products that do not require comprehensive customization, can contribute significantly to how quickly an organization's operations can be functional again." - Excepts from Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seifert, Jeffrey W.
2002-12-12
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Egypt-United States Relations [December 12, 2002]
"U.S.-Egyptian relations are tied to maintaining regional stability, improving bilateral relations focused on Egyptian economic development and military cooperation, developing Egypt's democracy, sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and continuing U.S. foreign assistance to Egypt. Experience gained from Egyptian-U.S. joint military exercises proved valuable in easing coordination during the February 1991 Desert Storm operation reversing Iraqi aggression against Kuwait. Egypt is a leader and moderating influence among many Arab, African, Islamic, and Third World states. Among the current issues in U.S.-Egyptian relations are the shared concerns over the terrorist attacks against Egyptian police, religious, government, and tourist facilities, and what those attacks may signal for Egypt's domestic stability. The two nations may disagree over Egypt's interpretation of applying human rights practices to Islamic terrorists. The two countries disagree over the speed and depth, but not the need for some of Egypt's economic reforms. Egypt and the United States agree on the importance of the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, the need to continue current Arab-Israel peace talks, and the need for regional stability. The two nations agree on Egypt's determination to introduce democratic reforms to Egypt. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of over $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. The United States will reduce Economic Support Funds (ESF) to about $400 million per year by 2008 in keeping with a plan to reduce aid to Israel. The Administration requested $655 million in economic grants and $1.3 billion in military grants for FY2002 for Egypt."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-12-12
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Middle East Peace Talks [Updated December 12, 2002]
"Since the founding of Israel, Arab-Israeli conflict marked every decade until the 1990s. With each clash, issues separating the parties multiplied and became more intractable. The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 provided a home for the Jewish people, but the ensuing conflict made refugees of thousands of Arab residents of the formerly British Palestine, with consequences troubling for Arabs and Israelis alike. The 1967 war ended with Israel occupying territory of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Egypt and Syria fought the 1973 war, in part, to regain their lands. In 1982, Israel invaded southern Lebanon to prevent terrorist incursions; it withdrew in 1985, retaining control of a 9-mile 'security zone' over which Lebanon seeks to reclaim. Middle East peace has been a U.S. and international diplomatic goal throughout the years of conflict. The 1978 Camp David talks, the only previous direct Arab-Israeli negotiations, brought about the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2002-12-12
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Postal Reform [Updated December 12, 2002]
From the Summary: "Although its short-term financial prospects have suddenly brightened by discovery that retirement obligations are less burdensome than presumed, the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) faces severe financial straits in the long term. Business use of the mails is declining as alternatives such as e-mail, faxes, and cell phones substitute for hard copy letters. Despite three rate increases in 18 months, USPS has lost well over $2 billion in the past two years, and is approaching its $15 billion debt limit to the Treasury. It has a negative net worth and mounting obligations for retiree health benefits. USPS would be bankrupt but for the fact that it is a government entity. USPS, its board of governors, GAO, and most mailers' organizations believe that the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 no longer provides a viable business model. It is dependent on rising mail volume to cover the ever-increasing cost of arbitrated labor settlements and the addition of 1.7 million new delivery points each year, yet volume has begun to fall. The highly regulated process of setting rates is cumbersome and tendentious. At congressional request, USPS developed a 'Transformation Plan' that briefly considered, and rejected, the alternatives of privatization and a return to regular agency status with appropriations to cover the costs of universal service."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Stevens, Nye
2002-12-12
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Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated December 11, 2002]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2002-12-11
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Palestinians and Middle East Peace: Issues for the United States [Updated December 11, 2002]
"The United States began contacts with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in December 1988, after the PLO accepted Israel's right to exist, accepted U.N. Resolutions 242 and 338 that call for an exchange of land for peace, and renounced terrorism. The United States continues its contacts with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority elected in January 1996, and is an active broker in the continuing Middle East peace process. […] On May 4, 1994, Israel and the PLO signed an agreement providing for the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho (withdrawal completed May 11, 1994). The Interim Agreement signed on September 28, 1995 (also called Oslo II or the Taba Agreement), provided for elections for the 88-seat Palestinian Assembly, the release of Israeli-held prisoners, Israeli withdrawal from six West Bank cities, and other issues. The Israelis withdrew from the West Bank cities by the end of 1995, and the Palestinian Assembly was elected on January 20, 1996, and sworn in on March 7, 1996. Israel and the Palestinians agreed to an Israeli withdrawal from Hebron in January 1997, and on October 23, 1998 signed the Wye agreement to meet previous commitments. The peace talks stalled at Camp David in July 2000, and remain suspended since the Palestinian uprising began in September. Some 1,493 Palestinians and 585 Israelis have died in the continuing confrontation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-12-11
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Pakistan-U.S. Relations [Updated December 11, 2002]
"The major areas of U.S. concern in Pakistan include: nuclear nonproliferation; counterterrorism; regional stability; democratization and human rights; and economic reform and development. An ongoing Pakistan-India nuclear arms race, fueled by rivalry over Kashmir, continues to be the focus of U.S. nonproliferation efforts in South Asia and a major issue in U.S. relations with both countries. This attention intensified following nuclear tests by both India and Pakistan in May 1998. South Asia is viewed by some observers as a likely prospect for use of such weapons. India has developed short- and intermediate-range missiles, and Pakistan has acquired short-range missiles from China and medium-range missiles from North Korea. India and Pakistan have fought three wars since 1947. […] In October 1999, the government of Prime Minister Sharif was ousted in a blood- less coup led by Chief of Army Staff Gen. Pervez Musharraf. Musharraf has since assumed the title of President, a move ostensibly legitimized by a controversial April 2002 referendum. The United States has strongly urged the Pakistan military government to restore the country to civilian democratic rule. National elections held in October 2002 resulted in no clear majority party emerging and were marked by significant gains for a coalition of Islamic parties. Pakistan continues to face many serious problems, including a beleaguered economy, corruption, terrorism, and poor governance. Pakistan will receive well over one billion dollars in U.S. assistance and several billion dollars from international organizations to help strengthen the country as a strategically important state."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2002-12-11
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Nuclear Weapons: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty [Updated December 11, 2002]
"A comprehensive test ban treaty, or CTBT, is the oldest item on the nuclear arms control agenda. Three treaties currently limit testing to underground only, with a maximum force equal to 150,000 tons of TNT. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, the United States conducted 1,030 nuclear tests, the Soviet Union 715, the United Kingdom 45, France 210, and China 45. The last U.S. test was held in 1992; the last U.K. test, in 1991. Russia claims it has not conducted nuclear tests since 1991. An article of May 2002 reported 'intelligence indicating that Russia is preparing to resume nuclear tests.' Russia rejected the charge. Since 1997, the United States has held 19 'subcritical experiments' at the Nevada Test Site -- most recently on September 26, 2002 -- to study how plutonium behaves under pressures generated by explosives. It asserts these experiments do not violate the CTBT because they cannot produce a self-sustaining chain reaction. Russia has reportedly held some since 1998, including several in 2000. In May 1998, India and Pakistan each announced several nuclear tests and declared themselves nuclear weapons states. Each declared a moratorium on further tests, but separately stated, in the summer of 2000, that the time was not right to sign the CTBT. […] Congress continues to consider the Stockpile Stewardship Program, which seeks to maintain nuclear weapons without testing. The FY2002 budget request for the program (Weapons Activities) was $5.300 billion; the final appropriation was $5.429 billion. The FY2003 request is $5.869 billion; the authorization is $5.902 billion."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.
2002-12-11
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Immigration and Naturalization Service: Restructuring Proposals in the 107th Congress [Updated December 11, 2002]
"The events of September 11 brought the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) to the forefront of the nation's attention. Although all 19 hijackers entered the country legally, three overstayed their visas. And, on March 11, 2002, INS sent student visa notifications for two of the (now deceased) 19 hijackers to the aviation school they attended, provoking an intensification of long-standing criticism of INS for weak management controls, among other things. An underlying theme of criticism concerns what many believe are overlapping and unclear chains of command with respect to INS's service and enforcement functions. There appears to be a consensus among the Administration, Congress, and commentators that the immigration system, primarily INS, is in need of restructuring. There also appears to be a consensus among interested parties that INS's two main functions -- service and enforcement -- need to be separated. There has not been a consensus, however, with regard to how the restructuring should take place. Current proposals to restructure INS center on separating the service and enforcement functions either by keeping INS intact and creating two separate bureaus to carry out the functions, or by dismantling INS and reassigning the functions to DOJ [Department of Justice] and other agencies or a newly created department of homeland security. While separating the two main functions would create a clear chain of command and increase accountability, several questions are raised. Are these functions operationally separable or interdependent? Will both functions receive equal attention and resources? How will separating the main functions address the fragmentation of immigrant-related functions across INS and other federal agencies? How will the separate entities expeditiously share information?"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seghetti, Lisa M.
2002-12-11
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Central Asia's New States: Political Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests [December 11, 2002]
"After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States recognized the independence of all the former Central Asian republics and established diplomatic relations with each by mid-March 1992. The United States also supported their admission to the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and other Western organizations, and elicited Turkish support in countering Iranian influence in the region. Congress was at the forefront in urging the formation of coherent U.S. policies for aiding these and other Eurasian states of the former Soviet Union, and approved the Freedom Support Act and other legislation for this purpose. After the terrorist attacks on America on September 11, 2001, all the Central Asian states offered overflight and other support to coalition anti-terrorist efforts in Afghanistan. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan have hosted coalition troops and provided access to airbases. Since then, the United States has boosted its security assistance throughout the region for anti-terrorism, counter-narcotics, non-proliferation, border and customs, and defense cooperation programs, while also increasing aid for democratization and free market reforms. U.S. policy goals in Central Asia include fostering stability, democratization, free market economies, free trade and transport throughout the Eurasian corridor, denuclearization in the non-Russian states, and adherence to international human rights standards."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2002-12-11
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Department of Homeland Security: State and Local Preparedness Issues [Updated December 11, 2002]
"The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) makes the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) responsible for providing assistance to state and local governments to ensure adequate preparedness for all disasters, including terrorist attacks. Several federal entities with functions relating to state and local preparedness, ranging from entire independent agencies to units of agencies and departments, will be transferred to the new department. Those transferred to the Emergency Preparedness and Response directorate (EPR) include: 1) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), in its entirety; 2) National Domestic Preparedness Office and Domestic Emergency Support Teams, (FBI, within the Department of Justice); 3) Office of Emergency Preparedness (HHS), including the National Disaster Medical System and Metropolitan Medical Response System; and, 4) National Strategic Stockpile (HHS). The Justice Departments Office for Domestic Preparedness (ODP) will be transferred to the Border and Transportation Security directorate. ODP provides training, equipment grants, and technical assistance to states and localities. Its assistance activities focus exclusively on preparedness for terrorist attacks - particularly those involving weapons of mass destruction."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-12-11
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First Responder Initiative: Policy Issues and Options [Updated December 11, 2002]
"In February 2002, the Bush Administration proposed a new block grant program called the 'First Responder Initiative,' to help state and local first responders prepare for possible terrorist attacks. Under the Administration proposal, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) would administer the program, which, if approved, would provide $3.5 billion to states and localities. The Administrations primary goal for the program is to improve the ability of first responders (police, firefighters, and emergency medical personnel) to respond to terrorist attacks involving weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The program would fund a broad range of activities in the areas of planning, training, exercises, and equipment. The 107th Congress considered a number of bills similar to the Administration proposal. On October 1, 2002, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committed reported S. 2664, the First Responder Terrorism Preparedness Act of 2002. The bill contained several features proposed by the Administration, including a 25% matching requirement, a wide range of eligible activities, and a requirement that states distribute 75% of funds to sub-state regions. S. 2664 also contained some provisions not specified in the Administration proposal, such as establishing standards for training and equipment and prohibiting the use of funds for overtime expenses. Other proposals for preparedness block grants were introduced in the 107th Congress, including S. 2038/H.R. 4059."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-12-11
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [Updated December 10, 2002]
"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This issue brief does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2002-12-10
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Mexico-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress [Updated December 10, 2002]
"The United States and Mexico have a special relationship under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which removes trade and investment barriers between the countries. The friendly relationship has been strengthened by President Bush' s meetings with President Fox. Major issues of concern to Congress are trade, immigration, drug trafficking, and political rights. [...] On November 2, 2002, a military court convicted two Mexican army generals of protecting drug shipments for accused drug lord Amado Carillo Fuentes. On November 22, 2002, new U.S. Ambassador Tony Garza presented his diplomatic credentials to President Fox. During the cabinet-level Binational Commission meetings in Mexico City, on November 25-26, 2002, Secretary of State Powell and Foreign Secretary Castaneda reaffirmed the importance of the relationship between the countries and indicated the intention to continue talks toward a migration agreement. Mexico indicated concern with the impending reduction of tariffs on sensitive agricultural products, and the United States indicated concern about Mexico's continuing failure to provide water in South Texas as required by the 1944 treaty. On November 27, 2002, with safety inspectors and procedures in place, the Bush Administration announced that it would begin the process that will open U.S. highways to Mexican truckers and buses, but opponents went to court in early December 2002 to block the action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-
2002-12-10
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Iraq: Weapons Threat, Compliance, Sanctions, and U.S. Policy [Updated December 10, 2002]
"In a September 12 speech before the United Nations, President Bush implied that U.S. military action would be taken against Iraq if the United Nations did not disarm Iraq. On October 11, Congress completed passage of legislation (H.J.Res.114, P.L. 107-243) authorizing the President to use force against Iraq. On November 8, the Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1441, giving U.N. weapons inspectors new authorities. Iraq reluctantly accepted the new resolution and an advance team of inspectors began work in Iraq on November 18. On December 7, Iraq handed over a 12,000 page required "complete and currently accurate" declaration of all its past WMD programs and WMD useful capabilities, reportedly stating it currently has no banned WMD programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2002-12-10
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Iraq: U.S. Efforts to Change the Regime [Updated December 10, 2002]
"The United States has been attempting to change Iraq's regime since the 1991 Persian Gulf war, although achieving this goal was not declared policy until 1998. In November 1998, amid a crisis with Iraq over U.N. weapons of mass destruction (WMD) inspections, the Clinton Administration stated that the United States would seek to go beyond containment to promoting a change of regime. A regime change policy was endorsed by the Iraq Liberation Act (P.L. [Public Law] 105-338, October 31, 1998). Bush Administration officials have emphasized regime change as the cornerstone of U.S. policy toward Iraq. This paper discusses past and current U.S. efforts to oust Saddam Hussein and the current debate over the implementation of that policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2002-12-10
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Terrorism Insurance: Comparison of H.R. 3210, S. 2600, and Conference Report [Updated December 9, 2002]
"The terrorist attacks of September 11 resulted in the largest insured catastrophic loss in history, estimated to total $40 billion. Even though the insurance industry committed to pay losses resulting from the attacks, industry spokesmen asserted that insurers might not be able to cover major future terrorism losses without a federal backstop. The 107th Congress considered how to provide such a backstop. On November 29, 2001, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 3210, the Terrorism Risk Protection Act, providing for a temporary federal backstop. In the Senate, four similar measures were introduced in 2001, but no action was taken during the first session of the 107th Congress. On June 7, 2002, Senators Dodd, Sarbanes, Schumer, and Reid introduced a compromise proposal, S. 2600, which was passed by the Senate on June 18, 2002. On October 17, 2002, leaders of the House-Senate conference committee and the White House tentatively agreed in principle upon a proposed compromise version of the legislation, which was circulated to all conferees for signatures. The conferees approved the conference report, which was filed November 13. The House agreed to the report by voice vote on November 14, and the Senate by vote of 86-11, on November 19. The President signed the bill, which became P.L. 107-297, the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act, on November 26, 2002. This report records the legislative development of H.R. 3210, S. 2600, and the conference report language enacted as P.L. 107-297."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2002-12-09
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Legislative Issues in 2001-2002 [Updated December 6, 2002]
"This report provides an overview of the major legislative issues Congress dealt with in 2001 and 2002 relating to Latin America and the Caribbean. Organized by the regions and subregions of the Western Hemisphere, the report provides reference and linkages to other reports covering the issues in more detail. The importance of the region to the United States has been emphasized by President Bush's trips to Mexico in February 2001 and March 2002 and his trips to Peru and El Salvador in March 2002, and by a number of congressional trips to the region."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937- . . .
2002-12-06
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Authorization and Appropriations for FY2003: Defense [December 6, 2002]
"Congress has completed action on the FY2003 defense authorization (H.R. 4546) and defense appropriations (H.R. 5010) bills. The President signed the FY2003 defense appropriations act into law on October 23 (P.L. 107-248), and he signed the FY2003 defense authorization act into law on December 2 (P.L. 107-314). In addition, Congress has approved, and the President has signed, the military construction appropriations bill (H.R. 5011, P.L. 107-249). The House and Senate Appropriations Committees did not, however, take up bills to provide $10 billion that the Administration requested as a contingency fund for costs of counter-terrorism operations in FY2003. The conference agreement on the defense appropriations bill establishes final funding levels for key defense programs, and it resolves a number of matters that were at issue during the year. As the Administration requested, the bill eliminates funds for development of the Crusader artillery system and instead provides increased funding for other Army indirect fire programs. Conferees added funds to develop an alternative tube artillery system to be deployed by 2008. Earlier, the conference report on the FY2002 supplemental appropriations bill (H.R. 4775, P.L. 107-206) directed the Army to enter into a follow-on contract to use Crusader technology in developing such a system."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy; Daggett, Stephen
2002-12-06
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Korea: U.S.-Korean Relations - Issues for Congress [Updated December 6, 2002]
"The United States maintains a strong, multifaceted alliance relationship with South Korea that has for decades served vital interests of both sides. Against the background of continuing difficulties in dealing with North Korea and the dramatic consequences of the Asian economic crisis, the two governments face a range of security, economic, and political issues that involve the Congress in its oversight and appropriations capacities, and in frequent exchanges between congressional offices and the South Korean government. Heading the list of issues is how to deal with the North Korean regime. The Bush Administration seeks policy changes from North Korea regarding weapons of mass destruction, conventional forces, and international inspections of its nuclear facilities. Tensions arose after North Korea revealed a secret nuclear program in October 2002. The Bush Administration also faces policy decisions on food aid to North Korea, North Korea's inclusion on the U.S. terrorism list, and U.S. responses to South Korea's 'sunshine policy' toward North Korea. President Kim Dae-jung seeks reconciliation with North Korea following the historical North-South summit meeting of June 2000. He has urged the United States to engage North Korea and make concessions to Pyongyang as a support for his policy. The Bush Administration's position on the sunshine policy is mixed, supporting some elements but having reservations about others."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2002-12-06
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Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance [December 6, 2002]
"Israel is not economically self-sufficient, and relies on foreign assistance and borrowing to maintain its economy. Since 1985, the United States has provided $3 billion in grants annually to Israel. Since 1976, Israel has been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance, and is the largest cumulative recipient since World War II. In addition to U.S. assistance, it is estimated that Israel receives about $1 billion annually through philanthropy, an equal amount through short- and long- term commercial loans, and around $1 billion in Israel Bonds proceeds. Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu told a joint session of Congress on July 10, 1996, that Israel would reduce its need for U.S. aid over the next four years. In January 1998, Finance Minister Neeman proposed eliminating the $1.2 billion economic aid and increasing the $1.8 billion in military aid by $60 million per year during a 10-year period beginning in the year 2000. The FY1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002 appropriations bills included cuts of $120 million in economic aid and an increases of $60 million in military aid for each year."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-12-06
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Terrorist Financing: The U.S. and International Response [Updated December 6, 2002]
From the Summary: "The U.S.-led international campaign to deprive terrorists of funding has so far produced mixed results. Though more than $120 million in terrorists' accounts reportedly has been blocked since September 11, 2001, less than 20 percent of this total has been frozen in the past 11 months. The al Qaeda network increasingly is shifting to non-bank methods of moving and storing value and is relying on a decentralized structure of largely self-financing cells; moreover, Middle Eastern donors apparently continue to provide funds to al Qaeda and other terrorist groups. In addition, the campaign has aroused controversy on various political, religious and humanitarian grounds and is viewed in some quarters as broadly anti-Islamic. How the crackdown on terror finance should be prioritized and integrated with a comprehensive global struggle against terrorism thus becomes an issue of considerable significance for U.S. policymakers and for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-
2002-12-06
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Congressional Action on Iraq 1990-2002: A Compilation of Legislation [Updated December 5, 2002]
"This report is a compilation of legislation on Iraq from 1990 to the present. The list is composed of resolutions and public laws relating to military action or diplomatic pressure to be taken against Iraq. The list does not include foreign aid appropriations bills passed since FY1994 that deny U.S. funds to any nation in violation of the United Nations sanctions regime against Iraq. Also, measures that were not passed only in either the House or the Senate are not included (with the exception of the proposals in the 107th Congress). For a more in-depth analysis of U.S. action against Iraq, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB92117, 'Iraq, Compliance, Sanctions and U.S. Policy'. This report will be updated as developments unfold."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2002-12-05
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Elections in Kashmir [December 5, 2002]
"The United States welcomed the successful October conclusion of 2002 elections in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, where nearly half of the electorate cast ballots. The elections resulted in the ousting of the long-dominant National Conference party, allies of the national coalition-leading Bharatiya Janata Party, thus bolstering the credibility of the process and dampening criticism from some quarters that the elections were flawed or 'farcical.' The opposition Indian National Congress and the regional People's Democratic Party (PDP) won a combined 36 seats in the state assembly, and Congress leader Sonia Gandhi agreed to a first-ever power-sharing coalition. PDP leader Mufti Mohammed Sayeed has assumed the office of Chief Minister vowing to bring a 'healing touch' to state politics. His 'common minimum program' includes controversial policies -- including the freeing of jailed political prisoners -- that have been lauded by some and criticized by others. The new government's seeming moderation has brought renewed hopes for peace in the troubled region. The United States had urged the holding of free and fair elections to be followed by renewed dialogue between India and Pakistan to resolve their long-running dispute. India has made clear that it will not engage such dialogue until Islamabad has put an end to cross-border infiltration of Islamic militants into Indian-held Kashmir. Following the elections, New Delhi announced a major troop redeployment after a tense ten-month standoff at the India-Pakistan frontier. Militant separatist groups in both Pakistan and Kashmir have stated that the ground realities are unchanged and so their violent campaign will continue. In apparent confirmation of these statements, numerous coordinated attacks in November 2002 killed dozens. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2002-12-05
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Israeli-United States Relations [December 5, 2002]
"Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-12-05
