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• Appropriations for FY2003: Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs [Updated January 30, 2003]

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  "The annual Foreign Operations appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. foreign aid budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making generally. It contains the largest share -- about two-thirds -- of total U.S. international affairs spending. President Bush requested $16.45 billion (amended on September 3) for FY2003 Foreign Operations, an amount 7% higher than regular FY2002 appropriations, but less than enacted FY2002 foreign aid appropriations when amounts allocated from the two supplemental appropriations are included. The White House distributed nearly $1.4 billion in FY2002 from the $40 billion emergency terrorism supplemental appropriation (P.L. 107-38) enacted in mid-September 2001 following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Congress approved in July an additional $927 million (net rescissions) in FY2002 supplemental Foreign Operations amounts aimed at bolstering homeland security and fighting terrorism abroad. Combined with funds provided in the regular appropriation (P.L. 107-115), enacted Foreign Operations spending for FY2002 totals $17.7 billion."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nowels, Larry Q.

  2003-01-30
• Israeli-United States Relations [January 30, 2003]

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  "Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2003-01-30
• Critical Infrastructure Information: Disclosure and Homeland Security [Updated January 29, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "One of the findings of the President's Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, established by President Clinton in 1996, was the need for the federal government and owners and operators of the nation's critical infrastructures to share information on vulnerabilities and threats. Among the strategies to help owners and operators share information with the federal government was a proposal to exempt the information they share from disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). Three of the nine exemptions provide possible protection against the release of critical infrastructure information: exemption 1 (national security information); exemption 3 (information exempted by statute); and exemption 4 (confidential business information). Public interest groups argue that the language in the House bill is far too broad and would allow a wide range of information to be protected from disclosure (including information previously available under FOIA), and that existing FOIA exemptions and case law provide sufficient protections."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moteff, John D.; Stevens, Gina Marie

  2003-01-29
• Iraq War? Current Situation and Issues for Congress [Updated March 4, 2003]

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  During January 2003, the U.S. military buildup in the Persian Gulf continued, amid reports that U.S. forces would be ready to launch a war by mid-February or early March. President Bush, other top U.S. officials, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair have indicated that Iraq has little time left to offer full cooperation with U.N. weapons inspectors. However, the inspectors themselves, with leaders of France, Germany, and other countries, are urging that the inspections process be allowed more time. The Administration asserts that Iraq is in defiance of 16 Security Council resolutions requiring that it fully declare and eliminate its weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Skeptics, including many foreign critics, maintain that the Administration is exaggerating the Iraqi WMD threat. This CRS report summarizes the current situation and U.S. policy with respect to the confrontation with Iraq, and reviews a number of war-related issues. See the CRS site [http://www.congress.gov/erp/legissues/html/isfar12.html] for related products, which are highlighted throughout this report. This report also provides links to other sources of information and updated approximately one each week.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.; Gallis, Paul E.

  2003-01-29
• Iran: Current Developments and U.S. Policy [January 29, 2003]

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  "Even before Iran's tacit cooperation with post-September 11 U.S. efforts to defeat Afghanistan's Taliban regime, signs of moderation in Iran had stimulated the United States to try to engage Iran in official talks. Iran, still split between conservatives and reformers loyal to President Mohammad Khatemi did not accept. By early 2002, reports of Iran's continued support to anti- Middle East peace process groups such as Hizballah had reversed the warming trend. Iran was grouped with North Korea and Iraq as part of the 'axis of evil' identified in President Bush's January 29, 2002 State of the Union message. The United States said subsequently it supports reform-minded Iranians who want democracy, an apparent shift from the stance of attempting to engage Khatemi's government. President Bush has identified Iran's efforts to acquire weapons of mass destruction and delivery means, coupled with its support of terrorist groups, as key U.S. concerns. Iran's ballistic missile program has made major strides over the past few years, with the help of several foreign suppliers, and the strides in its civilian nuclear power program could further a nuclear weapons effort."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2003-01-29
• Critical Infrastructures: What Makes an Infrastructure Critical? [Updated January 29, 2003]

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  Over the last few years, a number of documents concerned with critical infrastructure protection have offered general definitions for critical infrastructures and have provided short lists of which infrastructures should be included. The Bush Administration's proposal for establishing a Department of Homeland Security includes a function whose responsibilities include the coordination of policies and actions to protect the nation's critical infrastructure. Essentially, the federal government will have to try to minimize the impact on the nation's critical infrastructure of any future terrorist attack, taking into account what those impacts might be and the likelihood of their occurring. At the very least, a growing list of infrastructures in need of protection will require the federal government to prioritize its efforts.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moteff, John D.; Copeland, Claudia; Fischer, John

  2003-01-29
• India-U.S. Relations [Updated January 29, 2003]

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  "Although the end of the cold war freed India-U.S. relations from the constraints of global bipolarity, New Delhi-Washington relations continued for a decade to be affected by the burden of history, most notably the longstanding India-Pakistan rivalry. Recent years, however, have witnessed a sea change in bilateral relations, with more positive interactions becoming the norm. India's swift offer of full support for U.S.-led anti-terrorism operations after the September 2001 attacks on the United States is widely viewed as reflective of such change. Continuing U.S. concern in South Asia focuses especially on the historic and ongoing tensions between nuclear-armed India and Pakistan, tensions rooted in unfinished business from the 1947 Partition, and competing claims to the former princely state of Kashmir. The United States also seeks to prevent the regional proliferation of nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles. Both India and Pakistan have so far resisted U.S. and international pressure to sign the major international nonproliferation treaties."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kronstadt, K. Alan

  2003-01-29
• Iraq War? Current Situation and Issues for Congress [January 29, 2003]

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  "On November 8, 2002, the United Nations Security Council, acting at U.S. urging, adopted Resolution 1441, giving Iraq a final opportunity to "comply with its the disarmament obligations" or "face serious consequences." During January 2003, the U.S. military buildup in the Persian Gulf continued, amid reports that U.S. forces would be ready to launch a war by mid-February or early March. President Bush, other top U.S. officials, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair have indicated that Iraq has little time left to offer full cooperation with U.N. weapons inspectors. However, the inspectors themselves, with leaders of France, Germany, and other countries, are urging that the inspections process be allowed more time. The Administration asserts that Iraq is in defiance of 16 Security Council resolutions requiring that it fully declare and eliminate its weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Skeptics, including many foreign critics, maintain that the Administration is exaggerating the Iraqi WMD threat. [...] This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report summarizes the current situation and U.S. policy with respect to the confrontation with Iraq, and reviews a number of war-related issues.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2003-01-29
• Afghanistan: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated January 28, 2003]

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  The United States and its allies are helping Afghanistan emerging from more than 22 years of warfare, although substantial risk to Afghan stability remains. Before the U.S. military campaign against the orthodox Islamist Taliban movement began on October 7, 2001, Afghanistan had been mired in conflict since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The defeat of the Taliban enabled the United States and its coalition partners to send forces throughout Afghanistan to search for Taliban and Al Qaeda fighters and leaders that remain at large, including Al Qaeda founder Osama bin Laden. As U.S.-led combat against remaining Al Qaeda and Taliban elements winds down, the United States is shifting its military focus toward stabilizing the interim government, including training a new Afghan national army, and supporting the international security force (ISAF) that is helping the new government provide security. To help foster development, the United Nations and the Bush Administration have lifted most sanctions imposed on Afghanistan since the Soviet occupation. The "loya jirga" delegates selected a new government to run Afghanistan for the next 18 months and approved Hamid Karzai, a Pashtun, to continue as leader for that time, but the assembly adjourned without establishing a new parliament.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2003-01-28
• Location of Federal Government Offices [Updated January 28, 2003]

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  From the Document: "A legislative requirement for the offices of the U.S. government to be located in the District of Columbia dates to 1790. The applicable provisions have been codified in 4 U.S.C. 71 and 72. Although no definition of 'offices' is provided in Title 4, it appears that, at a minimum, the main offices of executive departments are required to be located in DC proper unless a statutory waiver is granted. The headquarters of the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency are located in Virginia, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission is in Maryland. All these agencies received statutory exemptions from the location requirement. The U.S. Naval Security Station, which is located at Nebraska and Massachusetts avenues in northwest Washington, DC, and is also known as the Nebraska Avenue complex, is the initial home for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Halchin, L. Elaine

  2003-01-28
• Travel Restrictions: U.S. Government Limits on American Citizens' Travel Abroad [Updated January 28, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "The U.S. government currently maintains limitations or restrictions on travel to four countries: Cuba, Libya, Iraq, and North Korea. This paper briefly outlines the nature of such restrictions, who administers them and why, and compares the restrictions among the four targeted countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rennack, Dianne E.; Epstein, Susan B.

  2003-01-28
• Primer on E-Government: Sectors, Stages, Opportunities, and Challenges of Online Governance [Updated January 28, 2003]

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  "Electronic government (e-government) intersects many legislative issues, including privacy, digital divide (the lack of equal access to computers, whether due to a lack of financial resources or necessary skills), public access to government information, service delivery, and information security...To help policymakers discern e-government initiatives relative to their role in various issues, this report identifies and defines the principal e-government sectors and stages of development. It also outlines some of the opportunities and challenges associated with e-government...The Gartner Group, summarizes e-government as "the continuous optimization of service delivery, constituency participation, and governance by transforming internal and external relationships through technology, the Internet, and new media"...One of the hallmarks of a federal system of governance is the emphasis on vertical divisions of power. In contrast, e-government initiatives utilize information technologies that emphasize a horizontal, or networked, model of communication and interaction...Although e-government encompasses a wide range of activities and actors, three distinct sectors can be identified. These include government-to-government (G2G), government-to-business (G2B), and government-to-citizen (G2C)...Due to a variety of technical, economic, and political reasons, e-government initiatives take time to evolve into their full potential. Consequently, one can divide e-government projects into four stages of evolution: presence, interaction, transaction, and transformation...Finally, proponents and critics of e-government recognize that there are a variety of opportunities and challenges involved with the successful implementation of e-government initiatives. Some of the potential opportunities include new services, increased citizen participation in government, and an enhanced national information infrastructure. Some of the potential challenges include information security and privacy, disparities in computer access, and management and funding requirements. This report will be updated as events warrant." - From Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seifert, Jeffrey W.

  2003-01-28
• U.S.-European Union Trade Relations: Issues and Policy Challenges [Updated January 27, 2003]

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  "Resolution of U.S.-EU disputes has become increasingly difficult in recent years. Part of the problem may be due to the fact that the U.S. and the EU are of roughly equal economic strength and neither side has the ability to impose concessions on the other. Another factor may be that many bilateral disputes now involve clashes in domestic values, priorities, and regulatory systems where the international rules of the road are inadequate to provide a basis for effective and timely dispute resolution. [...] The major U.S.-EU trade and investment policy challenges can be grouped into six categories: (1) avoiding a 'big ticket' trade dispute associated with tax breaks for U.S. exporters; (2) resolving longstanding trade disputes involving protection for domestic producers of airplanes and steel; (3) dealing with different public concerns over new technologies and new industries (4) fostering a receptive climate for mergers and acquisitions; (5) strengthening the multilateral trading system; and (6) reaching understandings on foreign policy sanctions that have a trade impact."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ahearn, Raymond J.

  2003-01-27
• Gun Control Legislation in the 108th Congress [Updated January 27, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "Congress continues to debate the efficacy and constitutionality of federal regulation of firearms and ammunition. Since 1934, various federal laws have been enacted to promote such regulation. The two most significant federal statutes controlling firearms held by civilians are the National Firearms Act of 1934 and the Gun Control Act of 1968. The 1934 Act established strict registration requirements and a transfer tax on machine guns and short-barreled long guns. The 1968 Act prohibits mail-order and interstate sales of firearms, prohibits transfers to minors and other prohibited persons, and sets forth penalties and licensing requirements for manufacturers, importers, and dealers. Gun control advocates argue that federal regulation of firearms curbs access by criminals, juveniles, and other 'high-risk' individuals. Some seek broad policy changes such as near-prohibition of non-police handgun ownership or the registration of all firearm owners or firearms. Others advocate less comprehensive policies that they maintain would not impede ownership and legitimate firearm transfers. Opposition to federal controls is strong. [...] While several dozen gun control-related proposals are likely to be introduced in the 108th Congress that represent a variety of positions on federal regulation of firearms, legislative debate and action may develop in the following issue areas: (1) extending, making permanent, or allowing to expire, the semiautomatic assault weapons ban, which sunsets on September 13, 2004; (2) expanding electronic access to disqualifying records under the Brady criminal background check system; (3) expanding federally-supported ballistic imaging to enhance law enforcement efforts; and (4) further regulating firearm transfers at gun shows."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Krouse, William J.

  2003-01-27
• Terrorism and the Military's Role in Domestic Crisis Management: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 27, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "This paper reviews the current legislation and policies that govern the military's role when supporting law enforcement in a domestic terrorism crisis and highlights some of the issues confronting the U.S. government. To fully understand the military's role in domestic crisis response it is necessary to explore existing national level structures and response options prior to the involvement of military forces. Crisis management is predominately a law enforcement function that manages the resources necessary to prevent or resolve a terrorist incident, including one involving WMD [weapons of mass destruction]. Current U.S. government terrorism response policy is contained in presidential directives. Among other matters, these directives address National Security Council structure and federal agency crisis response roles when responding to a domestic terrorism incident. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Northern Command has not yet changed the basic roles and relationships described herein."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Brake, Jeffrey D.

  2003-01-27
• Nuclear Earth Penetrator Weapons [Updated January 27, 2003]

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  "The Administration's Nuclear Posture Review considered nuclear earth penetrator weapons (EPWs), which would burrow tens of feet into the ground before detonating to improve their ability to destroy buried facilities. The FY2003 Department of Energy (DOE) budget request included $15 million to begin a study on a Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP). The request led to congressional and public debate because EPWs involve such policy issues as circumstances under which the United States would use nuclear weapons, military value of EPWs, and nonproliferation. This report provides background, pros, and cons. It will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2003-01-27
• Foreign Students in the United States: Policies and Legislation [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "The September 11 terrorist attacks by foreign nationals --- including several terrorists on student visas --- have prompted a series of questions about foreign students in the United States and the extent to which the U.S. government monitors their admission and presence in this country. [...] Potential foreign students, as well as all aliens, must satisfy Department of State (DOS) consular officers abroad and INS [Immigration and Naturalization Service] inspectors upon entry to the United States that they are not ineligible for visas under the so-called 'grounds for inadmissibility' of the Immigration and Nationality Act, which include security and terrorist concerns. In FY1979, the total number of foreign student and cultural exchange visas issued by DOS consular officers was 224,030 and comprised 4% of all nonimmigrant visas issued. In 1996, Congress enacted a provision that established a foreign student monitoring system and required educational institutions to participate as a condition of continued approval to enroll foreign students."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-01-24
• Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  "Since the September 11 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States legally despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to transition to a Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments -- the Department of State (DOS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ) -- each play key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. DOS's Bureau of Consular Affairs is the agency responsible for issuing visas, and DOJ's Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) plays a key role in approving immigrant petitions and in inspecting all people who enter the United States. In FY2000, DOS issued approximately 7.5 million visas and rejected over 2 million aliens seeking visas. The President's proposal for DHS, H.R. 5005 as introduced, would have bifurcated visa issuances so that DHS would set the policies, giving the DHS Secretary exclusive authority through the Secretary of State to issue or refuse to issue visas and retaining responsibility for implementation in DOS."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-01-24
• North Korea: Economic Sanctions [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  "U.S. economic sanctions are imposed against North Korea for four primary reasons: (1) North Korea is seen as posing a threat to U.S. national security; (2) North Korea is designated by the Secretary of State as a state sponsor or supporter of international terrorism; (3) North Korea is a Marxist-Leninist state, with a Communist government; and (4) North Korea has been found by the State Department to have engaged in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In accordance with U.S. law, the United States limits some trade, denies trade in dual use goods and services, limits foreign aid, and opposes entry into or support from international financial institutions. This report explains the U.S. economic sanctions currently in place, and summarizes recent events as they relate to the potential application of additional restrictions. It will be updated as necessary."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rennack, Dianne E.

  2003-01-24
• Nuclear, Biological, Chemical, and Missile Proliferation Sanctions: Selected Current Law [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  "The use of economic sanctions to stem weapons proliferation acquired a new dimension in the 1990s. While earlier legislation required the cutoff of foreign aid to countries engaged in specified nuclear proliferation activities and mentioned other sanctions as a possible mechanism for bringing countries into compliance with goals of treaties or international agreements, it was not until 1990 that Congress enacted explicit guidelines for trade sanctions related to missile proliferation. In that year a requirement for the President to impose sanctions against U.S. persons or foreign persons engaging in trade of items or technology listed in the Missile Technology Control Regime Annex (MTCR Annex) was added to the Arms Export Control Act and to the Export Administration Act of 1979. Subsequently, Congress legislated economic sanctions against countries that contribute to the proliferation of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons in a broad array of laws. This report offers a listing and brief description of legal provisions that require or authorize the imposition of some form of economic sanction against countries, companies, or persons who violate U.S. nonproliferation norms. For each provision, information is included on what triggers the imposition of sanctions, their duration, what authority the President has to delay or abstain from imposing sanctions, and what authority the President has to waive the imposition of sanctions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rennack, Dianne E.

  2003-01-24
• Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: Status and Trends [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  The United States has long recognized the dangers inherent in the spread of nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) weapons and missiles. Despite the preeminence of U.S. military power, or perhaps because of it, these weapons continue to pose very serious threats to the United States and its foreign interests. NBC weapons could be delivered by means ranging from simple options that terrorist groups might employ (e.g., ships, trucks), to covert forces, aircraft, cruise or ballistic missiles. The total number of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons throughout the world is shrinking as the major powers scale back their inventories through unilateral reductions and arms control, but some additional countries and groups are trying to acquire these weapons. Especially since September 11, 2001, U.S. and allied leaders still debate the nature and extent of the threat, the impact on international stability, and the opportunities terrorists might exploit. This paper assembles current information on the status of weapons programs around the globe and analyzes patterns regarding the threats posed by these weapons.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Squassoni, Sharon A.

  2003-01-24
• Immigration of Agricultural and Guest Workers: Policy, Trends, and Legislative Issues [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  "Several major proposals to revise U.S. immigration policy on agricultural guest workers were introduced in the 107th Congress. Though prior Congresses had debated but not enacted such bills, there appeared to be more momentum in 2001. President George Bush and Mexican President Vicente Fox established a Cabinet level immigration working group that was expected to offer a guest worker program as part of its package. The September 11 terrorist attacks, however, shifted the immigration policy focus, and the 107th Congress did not act on guest worker bills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2003-01-24
• Intelligence Issues for Congress [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  "The U.S. Intelligence Community continues to adjust to the21st Century environment. Congressional and executive branch initiatives have emphasized enhancing cooperation among the different agencies that comprise the Community by giving greater managerial authority to the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). Priority continues to be placed on intelligence support to military operations and on involvement in efforts to combat transnational threats, especially international terrorism. Growing concerns about transnational threats are leading to increasingly close cooperation between intelligence and law enforcement agencies. This relationship is complicated, however, by differing roles and missions as well as statutory charters. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, for which no specific warning was provided, have led to increased emphasis on human intelligence, statutory changes permitting closer cooperation between law enforcement and intelligence agencies, and to consideration of organizational changes to the Intelligence Community."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2003-01-24
• HIV/AIDS International Programs: FY2002 Spending and FY2003 Outlook [Updated January 24, 2003]

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  "The Administration's FY2003 request for international HIV/AIDS spending would increase funding for U.S. international HIV/AIDS programs. In addition, a budget amendment submitted by President Bush on September 3, 2002, would add $100 million in FY2003 spending for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and $100 million for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to fund a mother and child HIV transmission prevention initiative. FY2003 Funds have not been requested for some international programs funded in FY2002, although $200 million is being sought for a contribution to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria -- the same amount being provided in FY2002. Appropriations bills in the House and Senate would make available additional resources for the Global Fund."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2003-01-24
• Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  "Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002. On May 26, 2004, the government of Sudan and SPLA signed three protocols on Power Sharing, on the Nuba Mountains and Southern Blue Nile, and on the long disputed Abyei area. The signing of these protocols resolved all outstanding issues between the parties. On June 5, 2004, the parties signed 'the Nairobi Declaration on the Final Phase of Peace in the Sudan.' On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. The signing of the Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement effectively ended the 21-year old civil war and triggered a six-year Interim Period."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2003-01-23
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  "U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-01-23
• China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the U.S. interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and missiles that could deliver them. Recipients of China's technology include Pakistan and countries that the State Department says support terrorism, such as Iran, North Korea, and Libya. The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, added an urgent U.S. interest in weapons nonproliferation. This CRS Report (superseding CRS Issue Brief IB92056) discusses the national security problem of the PRC's role in weapons proliferation and issues related to the U.S. policy response, including legislation, since the mid-1990s. The table at the end of this report summarizes the U.S. sanctions imposed on PRC entities for weapons proliferation. This CRS Report will be updated as warranted.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2003-01-23
• Pakistan-U.S. Relations [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  "Major areas of U.S. concern regarding Pakistan include the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; counter-terrorism; settlement of the Kashmir dispute; democratization and human rights; and economic reform and development. A potential Pakistan-India nuclear arms race continues to be the focus of U.S. nonproliferation efforts in South Asia and a central issue in U.S. relations with both countries. This attention intensified following nuclear tests by both India and Pakistan in May 1998. South Asia is viewed by some observers as an arena for the possible use of such weapons, as both countries have deployed nuclear-capable ballistic missiles and institutionalized nuclear command structures. India and Pakistan have fought three full-scale wars since 1947. Pakistan-U.S. cooperation began in the mid-1950s as a security arrangement growing from U.S. concerns about Soviet expansion- ism and Pakistan's fear of neighboring India. Cooperation peaked during the 1979-89 So- viet occupation of Afghanistan. Pakistan-U.S. ties weakened following the October 1990 cutoff of U.S. aid and arms sales to Islamabad, which were suspended by President Bush under Section 620E(e) of the Foreign Assis- tance Act (the so-called Pressler Amendment). Further U.S. sanctions were imposed on Pakistan (and India) as a result of their 1998 nuclear tests."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kronstadt, K. Alan

  2003-01-23
• Korea: U.S.-Korean Relations - Issues for Congress [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  "North Korea's decision in December 2002 to restart nuclear installations at Yongbyon that were shut down under the U.S.-North Korean Agreed Framework of 1994 and its announced withdrawal from the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty creates an acute foreign policy problem for the United States. North Korea's major motive appears to be to escalate pressure on the Bush Administration to negotiate a nuclear agreement that would provide new U.S. political and economic benefits to North Korea, starting with Pyongyang's proposed non-aggression pact. […] The main elements of Bush Administration policy are (1) terminating the Agreed Framework; (2) no negotiations with North Korea until it dismantles its nuclear program; (3) assembling an international coalition to apply economic pressure on North Korea; (4) planning for future economic sanctions and military interdiction against North Korea; and (5) warning North Korea not to reprocess nuclear weapons-grade plutonium, asserting that 'all options are open,' including military options. China, South Korea, and Russia have criticized the Bush Administration for not negotiating with North Korea, and they voice opposition to economic sanctions and the use of force against Pyongyang. However, Administration diplomacy has made progress in persuading Japan and South Korea to support economic sanctions if North Korea escalates provocations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Niksch, Larry A.

  2003-01-23
• Immigration: Legislative Issues on Nonimmigrant Professional Specialty (H-1B) Workers [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  "In FY2001, the majority (58%) of newly arriving H-1B workers had Bachelor's degrees, and an additional 30% had Master's degrees. Over half (55%) reported occupations in computer-related fields. The only country sending more than 10% of the newly arriving H-1B workers was India with 45% of the total. The median annual compensation for a newly arriving H-1B worker in FY2001 was $50,000. Those opposing any further increases or easing of admissions requirements assert that there is no compelling evidence of a labor shortage in these professional areas that cannot be met by newly graduating students and retraining the existing U.S. work force. They argue further that the education of U.S. students and training of U.S. workers should be prioritized and that reliance on foreign workers would stymie those objectives. Proponents of current H-1B levels say that the education of students and retraining of the current workforce is a long-term response, and they assert that H-1B workers are essential if the United States is to remain globally competitive. Some proponents argue that employers should be free to hire the best people for the jobs, maintaining that market forces should regulate H-1B admissions, not an arbitrary ceiling."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-01-23