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Emergency Management and Homeland Security Statutory Authorities in the States, District of Columbia, and Insular Areas: A Summary [March 17, 2004]
"Homeland security requires a partnership among all levels of government. As Congress continues to debate federal responsibilities in this new policy arena, Members may wish to assess the reach of state policies. The information presented in this report, along with summaries of statutory authorities presented in the companion reports on each jurisdiction (the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and the insular areas), are intended to help Members evaluate the relationships among federal and state policies. [...] To a considerable extent, state statutory authorities appear to be relatively uniform. All state statutes provide considerable discretionary authority to the governor in emergency situations. Also, since federal law requires or encourages certain actions, all states have enacted similar laws in some areas, such as the establishment of state and local entities with responsibility for hazardous material or chemical incidents or the acceptance of federal disaster assistance. Some differences exist among the state authorities, such as the types, amount, and conditions under which aid is to be provided to disaster victims. Also, some states have enacted provisions to ensure that nonfederal funds are made available for preparedness or recovery, while others rely upon federal sources, with state funds authorized to meet cost share requirements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bea, Keith; Runyon, L. Cheryl; Warnock, Kae M.
2004-03-17
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Homeland Security: Banking and Financial Infrastructure Continuity [Updated March 16, 2004]
"The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has many responsibilities for ensuring the continuity of the 'real' economy: production, distribution, and consumption of public and private goods and services. Other agencies, however, have long had similar responsibilities for the 'financial' sectors of the economy, which interact with the sectors DHS oversees pursuant to P .L. 107-296. DHS has some responsibilities for financial sectors through Treasury Department links. Financial agencies carry out recovery and security activities independently but also coordinately with DHS. For additional information on homeland security, please consult the CRS current legislative issue 'Homeland Security,' on congressional web site [http://www.crs.gov/products/browse/is-homelandsecurity.shtml]. This report outlines recovery modes to mitigate disasters in financial markets that events have tested, and recovery arrangements. (Such disasters are of two kinds: inability to conduct transactions, and large losses of asset value.) Homeland security requires the financial institutions important in supporting and maintaining domestic and international commerce to take steps to safeguard their ability to carry out basic functions. The backbone of the financial economy-the payment system-comes through banks, and monetary policy affects them immediately. Other crucial intermediation functions come through a variety of financial companies, including brokers, exchanges, other secondary market facilities, and insurance companies. So, many regulators and trade associations need to be involved."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, William
2004-03-16
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Detention of American Citizens as Enemy Combatants [Updated March 15, 2004]
"This report, which will be updated as necessary, analyzes the authority to detain American citizens who are suspected of being members, agents, or associates of Al Qaeda, the Taliban and possibly other terrorist organizations as 'enemy combatants.' The Department of Justice cites two World War II era cases, Ex parte Quirin and In re Territo, to support its contention that the President may order that certain U.S. citizens as well as non-citizens be held as enemy combatants pursuant to the law of war and Article II of the Constitution. Critics, however, question the assertion of executive authority to detain U.S. citizens, without ordinary due process of law, in order to prevent terrorist acts or gather intelligence; and some argue that Congress
has prohibited such detention of U.S. citizens when it enacted 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a). While the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals has agreed with the Bush Administration that Congress authorized such detentions in its authorization for the President to use force against those he determines are responsible for the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States, the Second Circuit recently held that Congress has not authorized such detentions. The Supreme Court has granted certiorari in both cases and will hear them together on April 28, 2004."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer
2004-03-15
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Free Trade Area of the Americas: Major Policy Issues and Status of Negotiations and Major Policy Issues [Updated March 12, 2004]
"In 1994, 34 Western Hemisphere nations met at the first Summit of the Americas, envisioning a plan for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) by January 2005. Nine years later, the third draft text of the agreement was presented at the Miami trade ministerial held November 20-21, 2003. Deep differences remain unresolved, however, and, as reflected in the Ministerial Declaration, have taken the FTAA in a new direction. It calls for a two-tier framework comprising a set of 'common rights and obligations' for all countries, augmented by voluntary plurilateral arrangements with country benefits related to commitments. A follow-up meeting in Puebla, Mexico was unable to clarify the details of this arrangement and negotiations will continue in late April 2004, when it is hoped that specific commitments will be defined. This report provides background and analysis for Congress on the proposed FTAA and will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)
2004-03-12
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U.N. Convention Against Torture: Overview of U.S. Implementation Policy Concerning the Removal of Aliens [March 11, 2004]
The United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) requires signatory parties to take
measures to end torture within their territorial jurisdiction. For purposes of the
Convention, torture is defined as an extreme form of cruel and unusual punishment
committed under the color of law. The Convention allows for no circumstances or
emergencies where torture could be permitted. Additionally, CAT Article 3 requires
that no state party expel, return, or extradite a person to another country where there
are substantial grounds to believe he would be subjected to torture.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Mike; Nordin, Johannes
2004-03-11
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Weapons of Mass Destruction: Trade Between North Korea and Pakistan [Updated March 11, 2004]
"In October 2002, the United States confronted North Korea about its alleged clandestine uranium enrichment program. Soon after, the Agreed Framework collapsed; North Korea expelled international inspectors, and withdrew from the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). U.S. intelligence officials claimed Pakistan was a key supplier of uranium enrichment technology to North Korea, and some media reports suggested that Pakistan had exchanged centrifuge enrichment technology for North Korean help in developing longer range missiles. U.S. official statements leave little doubt that cooperation occurred, but there are significant details missing on the scope of cooperation and the role of Pakistan's government. This report describes the nature and evidence of the cooperation between North Korea and Pakistan in missiles and nuclear weapons, the impact of cooperation on their weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs and on the international nonproliferation regime. The roots of cooperation are deep. North Korea and Pakistan have been engaged in conventional arms trade for over thirty years. WMD trade between North Korea and Pakistan raises significant issues for congressional oversight. Are there sources of leverage over proliferators outside the nonproliferation regime? Do sanctions, interdiction, and intelligence as nonproliferation tools need to be strengthened? How is the threat of proliferation interpreted within the nexus of terrorism and WMD? Further, has counterterrorism cooperation taken precedence over nonproliferation cooperation? If so, are there approaches that would make both policies mutually supportive?" - From "Summary"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Squassoni, Sharon A.
2004-03-11
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War Powers Resolution: After Thirty Years [March 11, 2004]
From the Summary: "This report discusses and assesses the War Powers Resolution, its application since enactment in 1973, providing detailed background on a variety of cases where it was utilized, or issues of its applicability were raised. It will be revised biannually. In the post-Cold War world, Presidents have continued to commit U.S. Armed Forces into potential hostilities, sometimes without a specific authorization from Congress. Thus the War Powers Resolution and its purposes continues to be a potential subject of controversy. On June 7, 1995 the House defeated, by a vote of 217-201, an amendment to repeal the central features of the War Powers Resolution that have been deemed unconstitutional by every President since the law's enactment in 1973. In 1999, after the President committed U.S. military forces to action in Yugoslavia without congressional authorization, Rep. Tom Campbell used expedited procedures under the Resolution to force a debate and votes on U.S. military action in Yugoslavia, and later sought, unsuccessfully, through a federal court suit to enforce Presidential compliance with the terms of the War Powers Resolution."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2004-03-11
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Enforcing Immigration Law: The Role of State and Local Law Enforcement [March 11, 2004]
From the Document: "Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the enforcement of our nation's immigration laws has received a significant amount of attention. Some observers contend that the federal government does not have adequate resources to enforce immigration law and that state and local law enforcement entities should be utilized. Several proposals introduced in the 108th Congress, such as the Clear Law Enforcement for Criminal Alien Removal Act of 2003 (CLEAR Act; H.R. 2671) and the Homeland Security Enhancement Act of 2003 (S. 1906) would enhance the role of state and local officials in the enforcement of immigration law. This proposed shift has prompted many to question what role state and local law enforcement agencies should have in the enforcement of immigration law, if any. This report examines some of the policy and legal issues that may accompany the increasing role of state and local law officials in the enforcement of immigration law. The discussion is limited to the role of state and local law enforcement in the investigation, arrest, and detention of immigration law violators. This report will be updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ester, Karma; Seghetti, Lisa M.; Viña, Stephen R.
2004-03-11
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Budget for Fiscal Year 2005 [March 10, 2004]
"For fiscal year 2005, the President's budget request reduces defense spending from FY2004, increases domestic discretionary spending, most of which goes to homeland security, leaving the rest to low or no growth, and proposes extending and making permanent many of the tax cuts adopted in 2001 and 2003. The deficit would drop from an estimated $521 billion in FY2004 to $364 billion in FY2005. The Administration's request shows the deficit falling to $237 billion in FY2009, the last year in the budget. The budget proposals do not include estimates of the cost of the war on terror or reconstruction of Afghanistan and Iraq beyond FY2004 (September 30, 2004), do not provide estimates of the effect on the deficit or surplus of extending the tax cuts past FY2009 (which is when most of the effects would occur), and do not provide a proposal for alternative minimum tax (AMT) relief for the increasingly affected middle-class taxpayers, beyond the current expiration at the end of FY2005. These latter omissions, if addressed and accommodated in the future, would increase the deficit above what the Administration has estimated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Winters, Philip D.
2004-03-10
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Terrorism and Security Issues Facing the Water Infrastructure Sector [Updated March 9, 2004]
"Damage to or destruction of the nations water supply and water quality infrastructure by terrorist attack could disrupt the delivery of vital human services in this country, threatening public health and the environment, or possibly causing loss of life. Interest in such problems has increased greatly since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in New York City and at the Pentagon. Across the country, water infrastructure systems extend over vast areas, and ownership and operation responsibility are both public and private but are overwhelmingly non-federal. Since the attacks, federal dam operators and water and waste water utilities have been under heightened security conditions and are evaluating security plans and measures. There are no federal standards or agreed upon industry best practices within the water infrastructure sector to govern readiness, response to security incidents, and recovery. Efforts to develop protocols and tools are ongoing since the 2001 terrorist attacks. This report presents an overview of this large and diverse sector, describes security-related actions by the government and private sector since September 11, and discusses additional policy issues and responses, including congressional interest."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Claudia; Cody, Betsy A.
2004-03-09
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Restricting Trademark Rights of Cubans: WTO Decision and Congressional Response [March 9, 2004]
The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) has
ruled against certain restrictions on the trademark rights of Cubans imposed under § 211 ofthe Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act of 1998. Congress has responded with several proposals to comply with the ruling, some focused on repeal of § 211 as part of broader proposed amendments to Cuban trade sanctions, others on repeal coupled with alternative methods of ensuring Cuba's protection of trademark rights of Americans. This report will be updated as legislative activity occurs or other events warrant.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lee, Margaret Mikyung
2004-03-09
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Terrorism in South Asia [March 8, 2004]
"This report reviews the terrorist environment in South Asia. With U.S.-led counterterrorism efforts focused especially on Southwest Asia, the existence of international terrorist groups and their supporters in South Asia is identified as a threat to both regional stability and to the attainment of central U.S. policy goals. Al Qaeda forces that fled from Afghanistan with their Taliban supporters remain active on Pakistani territory, and Al Qaeda is believed to have links with indigenous Pakistani terrorist groups that have conducted anti-Western attacks and that support separatist militancy in Indian Kashmir. A significant portion of Pakistan's ethnic Pashtun population is reported to sympathize with the Taliban and even Al Qaeda. The United States maintains close counterterrorism cooperation with Pakistan aimed especially at bolstering security and stability in neighboring Afghanistan. In the latter half of 2003, the Islamabad government began limited military operations in the traditionally autonomous tribal areas of western Pakistan. There are indications that such operations are intensifying in coordination with U.S. and Afghan forces just across the international frontier. The relationships between Al Qaeda, the Taliban, indigenous Pakistani terrorist groups, and some elements of Pakistan's political-military structure are complex and murky, but may represent a serious threat to the attainment of key U.S. policy goals. A pair of December 2003 attempts to assassinate Pakistan's President Musharraf reportedly were linked to both Al Qaeda and a Pakistan-based terrorist group. There also are indications that elements of Pakistan's intelligence service and Pakistani Islamist political parties may have provided assistance to U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations. It is thought that some Al Qaeda elements fled to Bangladesh." -- Abstract
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2004-03-08
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Nuclear Weapon Initiatives: Low-Yield R&D, Advanced Concepts, Earth Penetrators, Test Readiness [Updated March 8, 2004]
"The Bush Administration completed its congressionally-mandated Nuclear Posture Review in December 2001. The review led to major changes in U.S. nuclear policy. It found that the Cold War relationship with Russia was "very inappropriate" and that this nation must be able to deal with new threats. It planned to retain Cold War-era nuclear weapons, which would suffice for many contingencies, though at reduced numbers. To complement these weapons so as to improve U.S. ability to deal with new, more dispersed threats in various countries, the Administration sought to explore additional nuclear capabilities...These initiatives are controversial. Supporters claim that the first three initiatives would enhance deterrence, thereby reducing the risk of war, and that some weapons that might result from the initiatives could enable the United States to destroy key targets in nations that may pose a threat. Critics are concerned that these initiatives would lead to nuclear testing, increase the risk of nuclear proliferation, and make U.S. use of nuclear weapons more likely...This report provides the policy context for the four initiatives. For each, it then presents a description, history, FY2004 legislative actions, the FY2005 request (for all but low-yield R&D), and issues for Congress. It is designed for those who want a detailed introduction to the debate, those seeking arguments and counterarguments, and those looking for answers to specific questions. It will track congressional and executive actions on these initiatives through updates as developments warrant." -- Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.
2004-03-08
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Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator Budget Request and Plan, FY2005-FY2009 [March 8, 2004]
"The FY2005 budget document for the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) shows funding for the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP) increasing sharply after FY2005 as the weapon proceeds beyond the study phase. NNSA states that these developments are shown for budgeting purposes and do not represent an actual plan. It further states that the out-year figures are already out of date, but that no new figures are available. A feasibility and cost study of RNEP currently under way was projected to cost $45 million between FY2003 and FY2005, but is now projected to cost $71 million between FY2003 and FY2006. This report explains the budget request and plan, and will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.
2004-03-08
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NATO's Decision-Making Procedure [Updated March 8, 2004]
"This report provides a brief analysis of NATO's decision-making procedures, with several examples of how the allies have handled sensitive issues in the past. It describes the February 2003 dispute over providing NATO defense planning and equipment to Turkey, and analyzes the debate over the decision-making process, including possible alterations of that process. This report will be periodically updated. See also CRS Report RS21354, The Nato Summit at Prague, 2002."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallis, Paul E.
2004-03-08
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Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator Budget Request and Plan, FY2005-FY2009 March 8, 2004
"The FY2005 budget document for the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) shows funding for the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP) increasing sharply after FY2005 as the weapon proceeds beyond the study phase. NNSA states that these developments are shown for budgeting purposes and do not represent an actual plan. It further states that the out-year figures are already out of date, but that no new figures are available. A feasibility and cost study of RNEP currently under way was projected to cost $45 million between FY2003 and FY2005, but is now projected to cost $71 million between FY2003 and FY2006. This report explains the budget request and plan, and will be updated as needed." -- Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.
2004-03-08
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Missile Survey: Ballistic and Cruise Missiles of Foreign Countries [Updated March 5, 2004]
"This report provides a current inventory of ballistic and cruise missiles throughout the world and discusses implications for U.S. national security policy. Ballistic and cruise missile development and proliferation continue to pose a threat to United States national security interests both at home and abroad. While approximately 16 countries currently produce ballistic missiles, they have been widely proliferated to many countries- some of whom are viewed as potential adversaries of the United States. Nineteen countries produce cruise missiles which are also widely proliferated and many analysts consider cruise missile proliferation to be of more concern than that of ballistic missile proliferation, primarily due to their low threshold of use, availability and affordability, and accuracy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2004-03-05
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Regulation of Broadcast Indecency: Background and Legal Analysis [Updated March 5, 2004]
Two recent events have placed increased attention on the FCC and its indecency
regulations . The airing of the 2003 Golden Globe Awards and the subsequent ruling
by the FCC's Enforcement Bureau, coupled with the controversy surrounding the
2004 Super Bowl half-time show, have brought broadcast indecency to the forefront
of the congressional agenda. Bills have been introduced to increase the penalties
imposed for broadcast indecency (H.R. 3717, S. 2056, S . 2147) and to prohibit the
broadcast of certain words and phrases in any grammatical form (H.R. 3687).
Resolutions have been introduced to express disapproval of the FCC Enforcement
Bureau's decision regarding the Golden Globe Awards broadcast : H.Res. 482, H.Res.
500, and S . Res. 283, which the Senate passed on December 9, 2003 . In addition,
both the House and Senate have held or scheduled hearings on broadcast indecency.
This report provides background on the two events in question, discusses the legal
evolution of the FCC's indecency regulations, and provides an overview of how the
current regulations have been applied . The final section of the report considers
whether prohibiting the broadcast of "indecent" words regardless of context would
violate the First Amendment.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cohen, Henry, 1949-; Welborn, Angie A.
2004-03-05
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Humanitarian Crisis in Haiti: 2004 [Updated March 5, 2004]
From the Summary: "Since armed rebels seized control of Haiti's fourth largest city, Gonaives, on February 5, 2004, and protests calling for President Aristide's resignation culminated in his departure on February 29, there has been increasing concern about a looming humanitarian crisis in Haiti. With events on the ground constantly shifting and an increasing lack of security, assessments of the humanitarian situation remain fluid and subject to change. This report covers recent developments and the humanitarian response to the crisis by the United States and other international actors. It will be updated as events warrant. For further information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB96019, 'Haiti: Issues for Congress' by Maureen Taft-Morales."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Margesson, Rhoda
2004-03-05
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Visa Policy: Roles of the Departments of State and Homeland Security [March 4, 2004]
Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been
raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States
on temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of
terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission
of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States
vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy
as well as changes in who administers immigration law.
Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to
come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain
exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS), two departments the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of
Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and
Naturalization Service (INS) each played key roles in administering the law and
policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOSs Consular Affairs remains
responsible for issuing visas, DHSs Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services
approves immigrant petitions, and DHSs Bureau of Customs and Border Protection
inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued
approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2004-03-04
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Iran's Nuclear Program: Recent Developments [Updated March 4, 2004]
"Inspections in 2003 of Iran's nuclear program revealed significant undeclared activities with potential application for nuclear weapons. The most recent report by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) details detail two uranium enrichment programs (centrifuges and lasers) and the separation of plutonium, another fissile material, in small quantities. Although the IAEA has stated previously that Iran has not met all of its NPT obligations, it has not yet declared Iran in violation of the NPT. Iran declared in November 2003 that it would halt all enrichment and reprocessing-related activities and would sign an Additional Protocol, which contains provisions for enhanced inspection. Although it signed an additional protocol on December 18, 2003, Iran continued to assemble centrifuge components. In late February 2004, it halted this activity also. The IAEA Board of Governors meets again in March to consider Iran's compliance. This report, which will be updated as needed, analyzes the significance of the IAEA's findings for a possible Iranian nuclear weapons program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Squassoni, Sharon A.
2004-03-04
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Black Members of the United States Congress: 1870-2004 [Updated March 4, 2004]
"Thirty-nine black Members serve in the 108th Congress, all in the House of Representatives. A total of 112 blacks have served as Members of Congress: 108 elected to the House and four to the Senate. The majority of the black Members (85) have been Democrats; the rest (27) have been Republicans. The first black Member of Congress was Hiram Rhodes Revels (R-MS), who served in the Senate in the 41st Congress (1870). The first black Member of the House was Joseph H. Rainey (R-SC). He also served in the 41st Congress. Shirley Chisholm (D-NY), elected to the 91st through 97th Congresses (1969-1983), was the first black woman in Congress. Since that time, 22 other black women have been elected, including Senator Carol Moseley-Braun (D-IL, 1993-1999), who was the first black woman, as well as the first black Democrat, elected to the Senate. The black Members of Congress have served on all major committees. Sixteen have served as committee chairmen, 15 in the House and one in the Senate. This report will be updated at the commencement of the 109th Congress unless there are significant changes in the 108th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Amer, Mildred L. (Mildred Lehmann)
2004-03-04
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AIDS Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVC): Problems, Response, and Issues for Congress [March 1, 2004]
"Since HIV/AIDS was discovered in 1981, more than 20 million people have lost their lives to the virus. Over 40 million are currently living with HIV/AIDS, including nearly 3 million children under the age of 15. Ninety-five percent of those living with the virus reside in developing countries. In Africa, more than 7,000 young people are infected every day, 2,000 of whom are under the age of 15. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) have estimated that at the end of 2001, 13.4 million children under the age of 15 had lost one or both parents to AIDS, with the majority (82%) in sub-Saharan Africa. Two million children lost their parents due to AIDS in 2000, orphaning a child every 14 seconds that year. By 2010, it is expected that more than 25 million children will be orphaned by this deadly virus. Due to the 10-year time lag between HIV-infection and death, officials predict that orphan populations will continue to rise for a similar period, even after the HIV rate begins to decline. Experts say only massive spending to prolong the lives of parents could be expected to change this trend."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji
2004-03-01
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Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs), Including 'Mad Cow Disease': Public Health and Scientific Issues [Updated March, 1, 2004]
From the Summary: "On December 23, 2003, the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture announced that a cow in Washington state had tested positive for bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or Mad Cow disease), representing the first domestic case. The Secretary announced expanded protections against BSE on December 30, 2003. On January 26, 2004, the U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services announced additional safety measures for products regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to protect public health. Both have stressed that the human health impact of finding one BSE positive cow is believed to be minimal. BSE is a member of a group of diseases called Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs). Although the predominant theory is that TSEs are caused by prions or proteinaceous infectious particles (a novel disease mechanism first described in the 1980s), some scientists believe a virus may eventually be identified as the infectious agent. While some TSEs, such as scrapie in sheep, have been known for over 200 years, others, including BSE, appear to have emerged quite recently. Some TSEs seem to affect only one species and others, like BSE, appear to have jumped the 'species barrier' to infect more than one species. This event has transformed prion diseases from a rare and esoteric area of research to a matter of significant public health concern. BSE is believed to have been transmitted to people who ate contaminated beef, leading to the identification in 1996 of a new human disease, variant Creutzfeld-Jakob disease (vCJD), in the United Kingdom."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Judith A. (Judith Ann), 1957-; Lister, Sarah A.
2004-03-01
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Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE, or 'Mad Cow Disease'): Current and Proposed Safeguards [Updated March 1, 2004]
"Shortly after the first case of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or 'mad cow disease') in the United States was announced in December 2003, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and other officials announced measures to improve existing safeguards against the introduction and spread of BSE. Previously, these safeguards, often called the 'three firewalls,' were: (1) USDA restrictions on imports of ruminants and their products from countries with BSE; (2) a ban on feeding most mammalian proteins to cattle and other ruminants, issued by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); and (3) a targeted domestic surveillance program by USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the agency responsible for animal health monitoring and disease control. As Members of Congress conduct oversight of the BSE issue and consider possible legislative options, some have asked whether the expanded agency actions will protect further against BSE, whether they are scientifically sound, and what cost they will impose on taxpayers and industry. Also at issue is whether they will restore foreign markets' confidence in the safety of U.S. beef, and whether other types of actions should be considered, among other questions. This report will be updated if events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Becker, Geoffrey S.; Lister, Sarah A.
2004-03-01
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Indonesian Separatist Movement in Aceh [Updated February 26, 2004]
"Indonesia faces a major separatist insurgency in the province of Aceh in northern
Sumatra. The Indonesian government has proposed autonomy for Aceh, but insurgents
demand independence. Negotiations and cease-fires have been unsuccessful.
Indonesian civilian leaders have been unable to control the Indonesian military, whose
aggressive actions in Aceh produce frequent reports of human rights abuses and
alienation of the populace. The Bush Administration has urged Indonesia to seek a
political settlement; but it has been hesitant to deal with the military's actions and seeks
renewed ties with the military in order to cooperate against terrorism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2004-02-26
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India-U.S. Economic Relations [Updated February 25, 2004]
"India is a country with a long history and a large population (more than one billion people, nearly half living in poverty). Given that it is the world's most populous democracy, a U.S. ally in anti-terrorism efforts, and a potentially major export market, India's economic development and its trade relations with the United States are of concern to Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan; Morrison, Wayne M.
2004-02-25
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India-U.S. Relations [Updated February 25, 2004]
"The end of the Cold War freed India-U.S. relations from the constraints of global bipolarity, but New Delhi-Washington relations continued for a decade to be affected by the burden of history, most notably the longstanding India-Pakistan rivalry. Recent years, however, have witnessed a sea change in bilateral relations, with more positive interactions becoming the norm. India's swift offer of full support for U.S.-led anti-terrorism operations after September 2001 is widely viewed as reflective of such change. Continuing U.S. interest in South Asia focuses especially on the historic and ongoing tensions between nuclear-armed India and Pakistan, tensions rooted in unfinished business from the 1947 Partition, and competing claims to the former princely state of Kashmir. The United States strongly encourages maintenance of a cease-fire along the Line of Control and continued, substantive dialogue between India and Pakistan."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2004-02-25
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India: Chronology of Recent Events [Updated February 24, 2004]
"This report provides a reverse chronology of recent events involving India and India-U.S. relations from September 2001. For a substantive review, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB93097, India-U.S. Relations. This report will be updated regularly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2004-02-24
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U.S. Nuclear Weapons: Changes in Policy and Force Structure [Updated February 23, 2004]
"The Bush Administration conducted a review of U.S. nuclear weapons force posture during its first year in office. Although the review sought to adjust U.S. nuclear posture to address changes in the international security environment at the start of the new century, it continued many of the policies and programs that had been a part of the U.S. nuclear posture during the previous decade and during the Cold War. This report, which will be updated as needed, provides an overview of the U.S. nuclear posture to highlight areas of change and areas of continuity. Analysts and observers have identified several issues raised by the Administration's Nuclear Posture Review. These include the role of nuclear weapons in U.S. national security policy, how to make the U.S. nuclear deterrent 'credible,' the relationship between the U.S. nuclear posture and the goal of discouraging nuclear proliferation, plans for strategic nuclear weapons, and the future of non-strategic nuclear weapons."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2004-02-23
