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• Recycling Computers and Electronic Equipment: Legislative and Regulatory Approaches for 'E-Waste' [October 18, 2002]

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  "Rapid growth in the use of computers and the incorporation of electronic features in a wide array of consumer products have been among the most important driving forces of the nation's economy during the last decade; but they also pose major potential environmental problems. In addition to producing better products, the improvements in technology have created growing volumes of obsolete products to be managed as waste...Management of these products as waste is of concern in part because of their volume, but more importantly because they contain large amounts of heavy metals and other toxic substances...As a result, many argue that electronic equipment should be managed separately from the municipal waste stream, and recycled whenever possible. The United States has done little to address this problem. Unless disposed in large quantities, used computers and other electronic products are allowed to be managed as municipal solid waste (i.e., the same as ordinary household trash) in most states. In some locations, used computers have been collected for recycling on special voluntary collection days, but few jurisdictions offer frequent, comprehensive recycling opportunities for electronic waste...Numerous interested parties, including environmental groups, solid waste management officials, electronics manufacturers, and retailers, have begun to develop alternative approaches on a voluntary basis...This report provides background on the management of discarded computers, discusses some of the initiatives undertaken in the United States and abroad, and identifies options that Congress might consider if it were to address this issue. As of mid-October, only one bill, H.R. 5158, has been introduced on this topic." - Excerpts from Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.

  2002-10-18
• Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies: FY 2011 Appropriations [July 25, 2011]

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  "This report provides an overview of actions taken by Congress to provide FY2011 appropriations for Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (CJS). It also provides an overview of FY2010 appropriations for agencies and bureaus funded as a part of the annual appropriation for CJS. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-117), included a total of $68.705 billion in new budget authority for CJS. Of the $68.705 billion appropriated for FY2010, $14.035 billion was for the Department of Commerce, $28.078 billion was for the Department of Justice, $25.658 billion was for the Science Agencies, and $934.8 million was for the related agencies. […] On February 11, 2011, the Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (H.R. 1) was introduced in the House. The bill passed the House on February 19, 2011. The House-passed version of H.R. 1 would have provided a total of $60.065 billion for agencies and bureaus funded as a part of the annual appropriation for CJS. This included $7.38 billion for the Department of Commerce, $27.123 billion for the Department of Justice, $24.697 billion for the Science Agencies, and $864.8 million for the related agencies. On April 15, 2011, President Obama signed into law the Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10). The act provides a total of $61.202 billion for agencies and bureaus funded as a part of the annual appropriation for CJS. The $61.202 provided by the act includes $7.581 billion for the Department of Commerce, $27.389 billion for the Department of Justice, $25.314 billion for the Science Agencies, and $917.9 million for the related agencies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Williams, Jennifer Dingledine, 1945-; Gonzales, Oscar R.; James, Nathan

  2011-07-25
• Requiring Individual to Obtain Health Insurance: A Constitutional Analysis [November 15, 2011]

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  "As part of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), P.L. 111-148, as amended, Congress enacted a 'minimum essential coverage requirement,' a provision compelling certain individuals to have a minimum level of health insurance (i.e., an 'individual mandate'). Individuals who fail to do so may be subject to a monetary penalty, administered through the tax code. Although the federal government provides health coverage for individuals through federal programs such as Medicare, it had never before required individuals to purchase health insurance. This report analyzes certain constitutional issues raised by compelling individuals to purchase health insurance. It addresses the authority of Congress to pass a law of this nature under its taxing power or its power to regulate interstate commerce. With regard to the taxing power, the requirement to purchase health insurance might be construed as a tax and upheld so long as it was found to comply with the constitutional restrictions imposed on direct and indirect taxes. […] On August 12, 2011, the Eleventh Circuit held that the minimum essential coverage requirement is unconstitutional. Conversely, the Sixth Circuit in 'Thomas More Law Center v. Obama' upheld the minimum essential coverage requirement as a constitutional exercise of the Commerce Clause. Other courts, such as the Fourth Circuit in 'Virginia v. Sebelius and Liberty University v. Geithner', dismissed these challenges, not based on the merits of the case, but for procedural reasons. Several petitions for Supreme Court review were filed, and on November 14, 2011, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the appeal in the Florida case. Oral arguments in this case are expected to take place in March 2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Staman, Jennifer A.; Brougher, Cynthia M.; Liu, Edward C.

  2011-11-15
• Intelligence Issues for Congress [September 21, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "To address the challenges facing the U.S. intelligence community in the 21st century, congressional and executive branch initiatives have sought to improve coordination among the different agencies and to encourage better analysis. In December 2004, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. [Public Law] 108-458) was signed, providing for a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) with substantial authorities to manage the national intelligence effort. The legislation also established a separate Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). […] Techniques for acquiring and analyzing information on small groups of plotters differ significantly from those used to evaluate the military capabilities of other countries, with a much higher need for situational awareness of third world societies. U.S. intelligence efforts are complicated by unfilled requirements for foreign language expertise. Intelligence on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction was inaccurate and Members have criticized the performance of the intelligence community in regard to current conditions in Afghanistan, Iran, and other areas. Improved analysis, while difficult to mandate, remains a key goal. Better human intelligence, it is widely agreed, is also essential, but very challenging to acquire. Intelligence support to military operations continues to be a major responsibility of intelligence agencies. The use of precision guided munitions depends on accurate, real-time targeting data; integrating intelligence data into military operations challenges traditional organizational relationships and requires innovative technological approaches."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2011-09-21
• Chile: Political and Economic Conditions and U.S. Relations [November 9, 2011]

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  "Since its transition back to democracy in 1990, Chile has consistently maintained friendly relations with the United States. Serving as a reliable but independent ally, Chile has worked with the United States to advance democracy, human rights, and trade in the Western Hemisphere. Chile and the United States also maintain strong bilateral commercial ties. Total trade has nearly tripled to over $17.9 billion since the implementation of a free trade agreement in 2004, and the countries signed an income tax treaty designed to boost private sector investment in February 2010. Additional areas of cooperation between the United States and Chile include investigating dictatorship-era human rights abuses, promoting clean energy technologies, and supporting regional security and stability. Sebastián Piñera of the center-right 'Coalition for Change' was inaugurated to a four-year presidential term in March 2010. Piñera's electoral victory was the first for the Chilean right since 1958, and brought an end to 20 years of governance by a center-left coalition of parties known as the Concertación. Since taking office, Piñera has largely maintained the open economic policies and moderate social welfare policies of his Concertación predecessors while proposing reforms designed to boost economic growth and reduce poverty. […] During the 111th Congress, both houses passed resolutions (S.Res. 431 and H.Res. 1144) expressing sympathy for the victims of the Chilean earthquake, and the House passed a resolution (H.Res. 1662) commending the country's rescue of 33 trapped miners. The 112th Congress could take up issues such as the U.S.-Chile bilateral income tax treaty that was signed in 2010 and is awaiting submission to the U.S. Senate for ratification. This report provides a brief historical background of Chile, examines recent political and economic developments, and considers current issues in U.S.-Chilean relations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Meyer, Peter J.

  2011-11-09
• Wartime Contracting in Afghanistan: Analysis and Issues for Congress [November 14, 2011]

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  "Government contracting in Afghanistan and other wartime environments is different than contracting in peacetime. In peacetime, the goal of contracting is generally to obtain the good or service that is required. The measurements of success are generally getting the right good or service, on schedule, and at a fair price. In wartime, however--and particularly in a counterinsurgency environment--cost, schedule, and performance are often secondary to larger strategic goals of promoting security and denying popular support for the insurgency. From FY2005 through 2011, the U.S. government obligated more than $50 billion for contracts performed primarily in Afghanistan. Because a primary goal of defense contracting in Afghanistan is to support the overall mission, it is deemed essential that contracting is not only thought of as a response to immediate needs but also as part of the larger strategy […] In June 2011, the vendor vetting cell consisted of 14 analysts capable of vetting approximately 15 companies a week. The cell is expected to have 63 analysts by December 2011. The billions of contracting dollars spent to support military operations and reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan raise a number of potential questions for Congress that may have significant policy implications for current and future overseas operations. These questions include (1) to what extent are U.S. government development and CERP [Commanders Emergency Response Program] contracts contributing to the overall mission in Afghanistan; (2) how will contract oversight be impacted by a troop drawdown; and (3) to what extent is DOD preparing for the role of contractors in future military operations?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schwartz, Moshe

  2011-11-14
• Intelligence Appropriations Process: Issues for Congress [November 9, 2011]

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  "It is now publicly acknowledged that intelligence appropriations are a significant component of the federal budget, over $80 billion in FY2010 for both the national and military intelligence programs. In an era of fiscal austerity, it is likely that Members of Congress will review intelligence programs to ensure they are both effective and affordable. The appropriation process for intelligence activities is, however, complex and not widely understood. Critics charge that it does not permit the Director of National Intelligence, or any other official, to provide overall management and direction, reduce inefficiencies, and undertake necessary transfers and reprogrammings to respond to a rapidly changing global environment. Others, including the 9/11 Commission, have argued that strengthening congressional oversight of intelligence, and especially intelligence appropriations, is a difficult and important problem. […] Making total amounts of intelligence spending public has, however, occurred at a time, unlike the situation in some earlier decades, when there is a general consensus regarding the importance of the nation's intelligence effort given the persistence of terrorist threats. Despite this consensus, there are likely to be those who argue that intelligence activities must be reduced in line with reductions in other government programs. Others, however, may argue that as active duty force levels are reduced, intelligence assets become more important to provide better awareness of foreign threats and allow more efficient force dispositions. According to this view, intelligence accounts should be spared major reductions. As a result, the congressional intelligence appropriations process is likely to receive continued attention. Congress may choose to review appropriations procedures to ensure that they most effectively enable decision making at a time when both national budgets and international conditions are grave matters of public concern."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2011-11-09
• GAO Bid Protests: Trends, Analysis, and Options for Congress [August 5, 2011]

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  "Bid protests on federal government contracts filed with the Government Accountability Office (GAO) have recently received increased congressional scrutiny due to protests of high-profile awards and reports that the number of protests is increasing. The delay of contract award or performance triggered by a GAO protest, coupled with the increasing number of GAO protests, has also prompted concerns about the potential impact of protests upon government agency operations, especially in the Department of Defense. GAO is one of three forums with authority to hear general bid protests against the government. The GAO's bid-protest process includes some unique features--most notably, the automatic stay of contract award or performance during a GAO protest--that make GAO a desirable forum for many disappointed bidders and offerors. […] The number of bid protests filed against the Department of Defense (DOD) consistently increased, from approximately 600 in FY2001 to over 1,225 in FY2010, an increase of more than 100%. During the same period, on average, 60% of all bid protests involved DOD contracts even though DOD accounted for an average of 68% of all federal spending. From FY2001 to FY2010, the number of protests sustained against DOD has remained the same whereas the percentage of protests sustained against DOD has dropped from almost 7% in FY2001 to less than 4% in FY2010. According to data provided by GAO, protests against DOD were generally sustained at a lower rate than the rest of government (4.5% vs. 5.9%, respectively). This report contains options for Congress related to minimizing the number of protests filed with GAO and the delay of award/execution often associated with protests being sustained."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schwartz, Moshe; Manuel, Kate

  2011-08-05
• Gasoline Price Increases: Federal and State Authority to Limit 'Price Gouging' [August 23, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "Fluctuations in gasoline prices in recent years have renewed focus on the role of the government in discouraging 'price gouging,' a term commonly used to refer to sellers inflating prices to 'unfair' levels in order to take advantage of certain circumstances causing a decrease in supply, including emergencies. There have been legislative efforts to create a federal law addressing gasoline price gouging, including bills that would bar certain commercial practices as well as legislation that mandated the study of pricing of gasoline in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. While the federal government has not enacted legislation aimed specifically at addressing price gouging for gasoline, a majority of states have enacted statutes to curtail price gouging for certain critical goods and services, including fuel, during emergencies. Some of these statutes attempt to address price gouging by barring pricing during emergencies that is considered to be 'unconscionable' or 'excessive' or otherwise is in violation of a subjective standard. Other statutes place a hard cap on prices during periods of emergency based on percentage increases from prices charged for the good or service in question prior to the emergency. […] Although there is no federal law aimed specifically at price gouging, federal antitrust laws do forbid various types of anticompetitive business practices. For example, Section 1 of the Sherman Act prohibits unreasonable restraints of trade. It is possible that if a group of gasoline retailers or other retailers collaborated to set prices unreasonably high during an emergency, this 'price gouging' could be a violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Act. In addition, while not necessarily tied to retail price gouging, federal statutes addressing monopolies and vertical integration may play a role in evaluating retail gasoline price changes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vann, Adam; Ruane, Kathleen Ann

  2011-08-23
• Brazil's WTO Case Against the U.S. Cotton Program [October 4, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "The so-called 'Brazil cotton case' is a long-running World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement case (DS267) initiated by Brazil--a major cotton export competitor--in 2002 against specific provisions of the U.S. cotton program. In September 2004, a WTO dispute settlement panel found that certain U.S. agricultural support payments and guarantees--including (1) payments to cotton producers under the marketing loan and counter-cyclical programs, and (2) export credit guarantees under the GSM-102 [Export Credit Guarantee] program--were inconsistent with WTO commitments. In 2005, the United States made several changes to both its cotton and GSM-102 programs in an attempt to bring them into compliance with WTO recommendations. […] As a result, Brazil has suspended trade retaliation pending U.S. compliance with the framework agreement measures. Key aspects of the framework agreement include (1) payment by the United States of a $147.3 million annual fund to a newly created 'Brazilian Cotton Institute' to provide technical assistance and capacity-building for Brazil's cotton sector, (2) quarterly discussions on potential limits of trade-distorting U.S. cotton subsidies (recognizing that actual changes will not occur prior to the 2012 farm bill), and (3) near-term modifications to the operation of the GSM-102 program coupled with a semiannual review of whether U.S. GSM-102 program implementation satisfies certain performance benchmarks. A further U.S. commitment, made under the April MOU [memorandum of understanding], includes modification of the animal disease status of the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina to allow products such as pork and live swine exports into the United States. These U.S. commitments are intended to delay any trade retaliation until after the 2012 farm bill, when potential changes to U.S. domestic cotton subsidies will be evaluated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-

  2011-10-04
• U.S. Wind Turbine Manufacturing: Federal Support for an Emerging Industry [September 23, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "Increasing U.S. energy supply diversity has been the goal of many Presidents and Congresses. This commitment has been prompted by concerns about national security, the environment, and the U.S. balance of payments. More recently, investments in new energy sources have been seen as a way to expand domestic manufacturing. For all of these reasons, the federal government has a variety of policies to promote wind power. Expanding the use of wind energy requires installation of wind turbines. These are complex machines composed of some 8,000 components, created from basic industrial materials such as steel, aluminum, concrete, and fiberglass. Major components in a wind turbine include the rotor blades, a nacelle and controls (the heart and brain of a wind turbine), a tower, and other parts such as large bearings, transformers, gearboxes, and generators. Turbine manufacturing involves an extensive supply chain. Until recently, Europe has been the hub for turbine production, supported by national renewable energy deployment policies in countries such as Denmark, Germany, and Spain. Competitive wind turbine manufacturing sectors are also located in India and Japan and are emerging in China and South Korea. […] A variety of federal laws and policies has encouraged both wind energy production and the use of U.S.-made equipment to generate that energy. Some of these policies are subject to change at the end of 2011, and others are scheduled to expire in 2012. Future decisions about these policies will affect the extent to which wind turbine manufacturing becomes an important industrial sector in the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Platzer, Michaela D.

  2011-09-23
• Helium-3 Shortage: Supply, Demand, and Options for Congress [October 6, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "The world is experiencing a shortage of helium-3, a rare isotope of helium with applications in homeland security, national security, medicine, industry, and science. For many years the supply of helium-3 from the nuclear weapons program outstripped the demand for helium-3. The demand was small enough that a substantial stockpile of helium-3 accumulated. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the federal government began deploying neutron detectors at the U.S. border to help secure the nation against smuggled nuclear and radiological material. The deployment of this equipment created new demand for helium-3. Use of the polarized helium-3 medical imaging technique also increased. As a result, the size of the stockpile shrank. […] The committee developed a rationing scheme for allocating the available helium-3. Some federal and private-sector users received no allocation or an amount less than they had planned. Several federal agencies are investigating alternative sources of helium-3 and ways to reduce the demand. Congressional attention appears predominantly focused on oversight of the current situation, how it arose, and the processes currently in place for addressing it. In future hearings and legislation, Congress may address additional issues, such as increasing the helium-3 supply, reducing demand, or changing how supply is allocated. This report discusses the nature of the shortage; federal actions undertaken so far to address it; current and potential sources of helium-3 and options for increasing the supply; current and projected uses of helium-3 and options for reducing the demand; and options for allocating the supply if it continues to fall short of the demand."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Shea, Dana A.; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)

  2011-10-06
• V-22 Osprey Tilt-Rotor Aircraft: Background and Issues for Congress [October 6, 2011]

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  From the Introduction: "The V-22 Osprey is a tilt-rotor aircraft that takes off and lands vertically like a helicopter and flies forward like an airplane. Department of Defense (DOD) plans call for procuring a total of 458 V-22s--360 MV-22s for the Marine Corps; 50 CV-22 special operations variants for U.S. Special Operations Command, or USSOCOM (funded jointly by the Air Force and USSOCOM); and 48 HV-22s for the Navy. The proposed FY2012 budget requested funding for the procurement of 30 MV-22s and 7 CV-22s, with one CV-22 to be paid for from Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) funding. The budget requested about $2.5 billion in procurement and advance procurement funding for procurement of MV-22s, and about $499.9 million in procurement and advance procurement funding for procurement of CV-22s, with $70 million of that from OCO. For FY2012, the V-22 program poses a number of potential oversight issues for Congress, including the aircraft's readiness rates, reliability and maintainability, operational suitability, and whether to approve a follow-on multi-year procurement contract."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gertler, Jeremiah

  2011-10-06
• Navy F/A-18E/F and EA-18G Aircraft Program [October 19, 2011]

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  From the Introduction: "The Navy has been procuring F/A-18E/F Super Hornet strike fighters since FY1997. Super Hornets and older F/A-18A/B/C/D Hornets currently account for the majority of the aircraft in the Navy's 10 active-duty aircraft carrier air wings (CVWs)--of the 70 or so aircraft in each CVW, more than 40 typically are Hornets and Super Hornets. In FY2006, the Navy also began procuring the EA-18G Growler, an electronic warfare version of the Super Hornet. Growlers are replacing older Navy and Marine Corps EA-6B Prowler electronic attack aircraft. Super Hornets and Growlers were procured in FY2005-FY2009 under a multiyear procurement (MYP) arrangement. The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests about $2.4 billion for the procurement of 28 F/A-18E/F Super Hornet strike fighters and about $1.1 billion for the procurement of 12 EA-18G Growler electronic attack aircraft. The Navy's FY2011 request for 22 F/A-18E/Fs comes in the context of a projected shortfall in Navy and Marine Corps strike fighters. Estimates of the extent of the shortfall vary, with the peak of the shortfall ranging from 100 aircraft by one estimate to 243 or more aircraft according to other estimates."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gertler, Jeremiah

  2011-10-19
• Community Services Block Grants (CSBG): Background and Funding [October 6, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "Community Services Block Grants (CSBG) provide federal funds to states, territories, and tribes for distribution to local agencies to support a wide range of community-based activities to reduce poverty. Smaller related programs--Community Economic Development (CED), Rural Community Facilities, Job Opportunities for Low-Income Individuals (JOLI), and Individual Development Accounts (IDAs)--also support anti-poverty efforts. CSBG and some of these related activities trace their roots to the War on Poverty, launched in the 1960s. Today, they are administered at the federal level by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). […] Representative Rehberg, chair of the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Labor, HHS, and Education, introduced an FY2012 spending bill on September 29 (H.R. 3070). This bill also would reject the Administration's proposed reduction for CSBG and would maintain the block grant and Rural Community Facilities at FY2011 levels. The bill would increase CED to $20 million and cut IDAs from $24 million to $9 million. It also would eliminate funding for JOLI. According to the latest data, the nationwide network of more than 1,000 CSBG grantees served nearly 21 million people in more than 8 million low-income families in FY2009. The network reported spending $14.9 billion of federal, state, local, and private resources. Of the total, $623 million came from regular federal CSBG funds and $344 million from a one-time appropriation under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA). About $9 billion came from other federal programs and $1.2 billion came from additional federal spending under ARRA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Spar, Karen

  2011-10-06
• Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1994-2001

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  "Developing nations continue to be the primary focus of foreign arms sales activity by weapons suppliers. Recently, from 1998-2001, the United States and Russia have dominated the arms market in the developing world, with the United States ranking first each of the last four years in the value of arms transfer agreements. In 2001, the United States ranked first in arms transfer agreements with developing nations with nearly $7 billion or 43.6% of these agreements. Russia was second with $5.7 billion or 29.6% of such agreements. China ranked third with $600 million or 3.8% of such agreements. In 2001, the United States ranked first in the value of arms deliveries to developing nations at $6 billion, or 41.7% of all such deliveries. Russia ranked second at $3.4 billion or 23.6% of such deliveries. The United Kingdom ranked third at $3.3 billion or 22.9% of such deliveries. During the 1998-2001 period, the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) ranked first among developing nations in the value of arms transfer agreements, concluding $10.8 billion in such agreements. India ranked second at $7.2 billion. China ranked third with $6.7 billion. In 2001, Israel ranked first in the value of arms transfer agreements among all developing nations weapons purchasers, concluding $2.5 billion in such agreements. China ranked second with $2.1 billion in such agreements. Egypt ranked third with $2 billion." - from Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2002-08-06
• Remedies Available to Victims of Identity Theft [Updated July 9, 2003]

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  According to the Federal Trade Commission, identity theft is the most common complaint from consumers in all fifty states.1 Victims of identity theft may incur damaged credit records, unauthorized charges on credit cards, and unauthorized withdrawals from bank accounts. Oftentimes, victims must change their addresses, telephone numbers, and even their Social Security numbers. This report provides an overview of the federal laws that could assist victims of identity theft with purging inaccurate information from their credit records and removing unauthorized charges from credit accounts, as well as federal laws that impose criminal penalties on those who assume another person's identity through the use of fraudulent identification documents. Similar state laws and recent legislative proposals aimed at preventing identity theft and providing additional remedies will also be discussed. To date, several bills (S. 22, S. 153, S. 223, S. 228, H.R. 220, H.R. 637, H.R. 818, and H.R. 858) related to identity theft have been introduced in the 108th Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Welborn, Angie A.

  2003-02-27
• Iraqi Chemical & Biological Weapons (CBW) Capabilities [Updated September 4, 1998]

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  Since 1991, the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) has destroyed over 38,000 filled and unfilled chemical weapons (CW) munitions, 690 metric tons of CW agents, 3,000 metric tons of CW precursor chemicals, and over 400 pieces of CW production equipment. The Iraqi government maintains that all its chemical and biological weapons (CBW) arsenal and production capability has been destroyed either by UNSCOM or in 1991 by the Iraqis themselves in unauthorized activities which violated U.N. Security Council Resolution 687. UNSCOM maintains that Iraq has not provided verification of this destruction, and has a substantial record of deception and omission in its CBW declarations to the United Nations. British and U.S. intelligence reports in February 1998 and the UNSCOM report to the Security Council in April 1998 assert that Iraq has not accounted for and may still possess a significant CBW capability, including: 500-700 mustard agent artillery shells, over 150 bombs filled with BW agents, and 45 CBW missile warheads. In addition, UNSCOM believes that Iraq manufactured over 200 metric tons of the persistent nerve agent VX, but has accounted for only 3.9 tons. Growth medium sufficient to produce 16,000 liters of anthrax has also not been accounted for. These reports are based on defector debriefings, records of purchases, and Iraqi documents. U.N., British, and U.S. officials believe that without continuous U.N. monitoring, Iraq would be capable of restoring its CBW production within months. Owing to obstruction of UNSCOM inspections, the question of airstrikes against suspected CBW sites has arisen, but lack of certainty about targets and concerns about collateral casualties have inhibited action. Potential casualties from the purposeful of use of CBW were estimated by the Office of Technology Assessment, using a Washington DC scenario, to range from several hundred to several million, depending on the agent used and weather. A glossary of CBW terms is appended to this report. This report will be updated only to reflect substantial new information. For additional information, see CRS Issue Brief 92117 Iraqi Compliance with Cease-fire Agreements, by Kenneth Katzman.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bowman, Steve

  1998-09-04
• Immigration Policy for Intracompany Transfers (L Visas): Issues and Legislation [June 12, 2003]

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  Concerns are growing that the visa category that allows executives and managers of multinational corporations to work temporarily in the United States is being misused. This visa category, commonly referred to as the L visa, permits multinational firms to transfer top-level personnel to their locations in the United States for 5 to 7 years. Although the number of L visas issued has tripled in the past 20 years, the number of L visas that the Department of State issued in FY2002 (112,624) is down from a high of 120,538 in FY2001. Some are now charging that firms are using the L visa to transfer "rank and file" professional employees rather than limiting these transfers to top-level personnel, thus circumventing immigration laws aimed at protecting U.S. employees from the potential adverse employment effects associated with an increase in the number of foreign workers. Proponents of current law maintain that any restrictions on L visas would prompt many multinational firms to leave the U.S., as well as undermine reciprocal agreements that currently permit U.S. corporations to transfer their employees abroad. Legislation that would amend the L-1 visa has been introduced (H.R. 2154). This report tracks legislative activity and will be updated as action warrants.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-06-12
• Thailand-U.S. Economic Relations: An Overview [March 28, 2003]

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  Thailand is a key U.S. ally in the international war against terrorism and efforts to counter illegal narcotics traffic and is an important U.S. economic partner in Southeast Asia. Thailand continues to rebuild its economy after the debilitating effects of the Asian Financial Crisis which hit the country in 1997. International trade and investment continues to play a major role in the Thai economy, and policymakers there are attempting to develop strategies to boost Thailand's international competitiveness. This report will be revised as events warrant.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morrison, Wayne M.

  2003-03-28
• Oregon Emergency Management and Homeland Security Statutory Authorities Summarized [March 23, 2004]

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  "The Office of Emergency Management serves as the lead Oregon agency to manage preparation for and response to disasters. The governor is authorized to declare a state of emergency at the request of a county governing body or based on his or her determination that an emergency has occurred. During a state of emergency the governor is authorized to control goods, services and commodities, and may, with the legislature's approval, transfer and spend money appropriated for other purposes to meet the emergency. The governor may unilaterally accept federal financial assistance for political subdivisions after the President issues a major disaster declaration; concurrence of the state Emergency Board or the Joint Ways and Means Committee of the Assembly is required for temporary housing assistance or financial aid to individuals and families. This report is one of a series that profiles emergency management and homeland security statutory authorities of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Each profile identifies the more significant elements of state statutes, generally as codified. Congressional readers may wish to conduct further searches for related provisions using the Internet link presented in the last section of this report. [...] Summary information on all of the profiles is presented in CRS Report RL32287. This report will be updated as developments warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bea, Keith

  2004-03-23
• Iraqi Chemical & Biological Weapons (CBW) Capabilities [February 17, 1998]

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  The United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) has destroyed large amounts of CB weapons and materials in Iraq since 1991. UNSCOM has reported no firm evidence that Iraq still retains weapons or materiel, but the Iraqi government has not provided adequate evidence to support its claim all its CBW arsenal has been destroyed, nor has it accounted for CBW production materials known to have been in its possession. These factors, coupled with Iraqi obstruction of UNSCOM inspections has led to strong suspicions. U.S. and British intelligence agencies believe that Iraq still may possess tons of chemical warfare agents and the necessary materials to produce thousands of liters of biological agents. In addition, UNSCOM and U.S. intelligence believe Iraq may still have hidden from 2-10 warheads designed to deliver chemical or biological agents. UNSCOM and U.S. intelligence differ in their estimates of the number of missiles that may still be in Iraq. The Iraqi chemical warfare arsenal has included nerve agents (Sarin and VX), blister agents ("mustard gas"), and psychoactive agents (so-called Agent 15). Biological/toxin warfare agents produced by Iraq include anthrax, botulinum, aflotoxins, ebola virus, bubonic and pneumonic plague, ricin, and clostrdium perfringens. Reconstitution of militarily significant production capability using materials unaccounted for to UNSCOM could take only a matter of weeks. During the week of February 23, the Senate is scheduled to consider S.Con.Res. 71, calling on the President to take all necessary and appropriate actions in response to the threat posed by Iraq's refusal to end its lethal weapons program.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bowman, Steve

  1998-02-17
• Identity Theft and the Fair Credit Reporting Act: An Analysis of TRW v. Andrews and Current Legislation [Updated February 27, 2003]

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  One of the ways in which victims of identity theft may recover for financial harm is by filing suit under the Fair Credit Reporting Act. However, the Act imposes a two year statute of limitations on suits filed. On November 13, 2001, the Supreme Court decided a case interpreting when the Act's statute of limitations begins to run. In that case, the Court held that the statute of limitations begins to run when inaccurate disclosures first occur, and not when the consumer learns of the inaccuracies in his report. Several pieces of legislation attempting to provide consumers with additional time to file suit have been introduced in response to the Court's decision. This report will provide a brief summary of the Fair Credit Reporting Act provisions in question, as well as an analysis of the recent Supreme Court decision and an overview of recent legislation (S. 22 and H.R. 818) introduced in response to that decision. This report will be updated as events warrant.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Welborn, Angie A.

  2003-02-27
• Cuba: Issues for the 112th Congress [August 22, 2011]

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  "Cuba remains a one-party communist state with a poor record on human rights. The country's political succession in 2006 from the long-ruling Fidel Castro to his brother Raúl was characterized by a remarkable degree of stability. The government of Raúl Castro has implemented limited economic policy changes, including an expansion of self-employment begun in October 2010. A party congress held in April 2011 laid out numerous economic goals that could increase the private sector. Few observers expect the government to ease its tight control over the political system, although it has reduced the number of political prisoners over the past several years, including the release of over 125 since 2010 after talks with the Catholic Church. […] Several initiatives would ease sanctions: H.R. 255 and H.R. 1887 (overall sanctions); H.R. 833 and H.R. 1888 (agricultural exports); and H.R. 380 and H.R. 1886 (travel). Two initiatives, S. 603 and H.R. 1166, would modify a trademark sanction, while several bills already noted would eliminate that sanction (H.R. 255, H.R. 1887, and H.R. 1888). Three bills would take different approaches toward Cuba's offshore oil development: H.R. 372, S. 405, and H.R. 2047. Two initiatives would discontinue Radio and TV Martí broadcasts to Cuba: S. 476 and H.R. 1317. One resolution would call for the return of U.S. fugitives in Cuba. For additional information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31139, 'Cuba: U.S. Restrictions on Travel and Remittances' and CRS Report R41522, 'Cuba's Offshore Oil Development: Background and U.S. Policy Considerations.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2011-08-22
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments [December 7, 2011]

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  "A ban on all nuclear tests is the oldest item on the nuclear arms control agenda. Three treaties that entered into force between 1963 and 1990 limit but do not ban such tests. In 1996, the U.N. General Assembly adopted the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which would ban all nuclear explosions. In 1997, President Clinton sent the CTBT to the Senate, which rejected it in October 1999. In a speech in Prague in April 2009, President Obama said, 'My administration will immediately and aggressively pursue U.S. ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.' However, the Administration focused its efforts in 2010 on securing Senate advice and consent to ratification of the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START). The Administration has indicated it wants to begin a CTBT 'education' campaign with a goal of securing Senate advice and consent to ratification, but there have been no hearings on the treaty in the 111th or 112th Congresses. As of December 2011, 182 states had signed the CTBT and 156, including Russia, had ratified it. However, entry into force requires ratification by 44 states specified in the treaty, of which 41 had signed the treaty and 36 had ratified. Seven conferences have been held to facilitate entry into force, most recently on September 23, 2011. […] This report will be updated occasionally. This version reflects Indonesia's ratification of the treaty on December 6, 2011, and makes other updates throughout. CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL34394, 'Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Issues and Arguments', by Jonathan Medalia, presents CTBT pros and cons in detail. CRS Report R40612, 'Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Updated 'Safeguards' and Net Assessments', by Jonathan Medalia, discusses safeguards-- unilateral steps to maintain U.S. nuclear security consistent with nuclear testing treaties--and their relationship to the CTBT. CRS Report R41908, 'Energy and Water Development: FY2012 Appropriations', coordinated by Carl E. Behrens, provides details on stockpile stewardship."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2011-12-07
• Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive [August 23, 2011]

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  "Attempts to resolve the Cyprus problem and reunify the island have undergone various levels of negotiation for over 45 years. Throughout 2011, Cyprus President Demetris Christofias and Turkish Cypriot leader Dervis Eroglu have continued the negotiation process but have thus far failed to reach a mutually agreed settlement. Although both sides have intimated that some convergence of views has been achieved in the areas of governance, economy, and EU issues, Christofias and Eroglu have not found common ground on the difficult issues of property rights, security, settlers, and citizenship, areas where both sides have long-held and very different positions and where neither side seems willing or able to make necessary concessions. […] These comments led Cypriot President Christofias to state that there could be no prospect for peace if this was also the position of the Turkish Cypriots. Finally, the Government of Cyprus announced that it would soon begin drilling for natural gas off the southern coast of Cyprus, prompting both Ankara and the Turkish Cypriots to protest that such a move would jeopardize the settlement negotiations. The United States Congress continues to maintain its interest in a resolution of the Cyprus issue. Language expressing continued support for the negotiation process has been included in the House FY2012 Foreign Assistance Authorization bill. This report provides a brief overview of the early history of the negotiations, a more detailed review of the negotiations since 2008, and a description of some of the issues involved in the talks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morelli, Vincent L.

  2011-08-23
• Egypt in Transition [August 23, 2011]

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  "On February 11, 2011, President Hosni Mubarak resigned from the presidency after 29 years in power. For 18 days, a popular peaceful uprising spread across Egypt and ultimately forced Mubarak to cede power to the military. How Egypt transitions to a more democratic system in the months ahead will have major implications for U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East and for other countries in the region ruled by monarchs and dictators. This report provides a brief overview of the transition underway and information on U.S. foreign aid to Egypt. U.S. policy toward Egypt has long been framed as an investment in regional stability, built primarily on long-running military cooperation and sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Egypt's government as a moderating influence in the Middle East. U.S. policy makers are now grappling with complex questions about the future of U.S.-Egypt relations, and these debates are likely to influence consideration of appropriations and authorization legislation in the 112th Congress. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. For FY2012, the Obama Administration has requested $1.551 billion in total aid to Egypt. On July 27, 2011, the House Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs marked up its FY2012 State-Foreign Operations appropriation, proposing that Egypt receive the full FY2012 request ($1.551 billion), including $1.3 billion in military aid, and that military aid should also be used for 'border security programs and activities in the Sinai, with the expectation that the Egyptian military will continue to adhere to and implement its international obligations, particularly the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2011-08-23
• Dispute Settlement Under the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement: An Overivew [August 12, 2011]

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  "The U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA) follows current U.S. free trade agreement (FTA) practice in containing two types of formal dispute settlement: (1) State-State, applicable to disputes between PTPA Parties, and (2) investor-State, applicable to claims by an investor of one State Party against other State Party for breach of a PTPA investment obligation. A Party in a State-State dispute found to have violated a PTPA obligation is generally expected to remove the complained-of measure; remedies for non-compliance include compensation and the suspension of PTPA concessions or obligations (e.g., imposition of a tariff surcharge on the defending Party's products), with the defending Party having the option of paying a fine to the prevailing Party or, in some cases, into a fund that may be used to assist the defending Party in complying in the case. […] The fact-finding review could possibly lead to a State-State dispute proceeding if the United States considers that Peru has acted inconsistently with the agreement and efforts to settle the dispute through consultations are unsuccessful. To establish a PTPA violation, the United States must demonstrate that Peru has failed to adopt or maintain a law, regulation, or practice in a manner that affects trade or investment between the Parties. In addition, one case has been brought under the PTPA investor-State dispute settlement mechanism. In April 2011, a U.S. firm filed an arbitral claim alleging that Peru had violated its PTPA investment obligations in its treatment of a metallurgical smeltering and refining operation run by the claimant's affiliate in Peru."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Jeanne J.

  2011-08-12
• Cooperative R&D: Federal Efforts to Promote Industrial Competitiveness [December 7, 2011]

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  "In response to the foreign challenge in the global marketplace, the United States Congress has explored ways to stimulate technological advancement in the private sector. The government has supported various efforts to promote cooperative research and development activities among industry, universities, and the federal R&D [research and development] establishment designed to increase the competitiveness of American industry and to encourage the generation of new products, processes, and services. Collaborative ventures are intended to accommodate the strengths and responsibilities of all sectors involved in innovation and technology development. Academia, industry, and government often have complementary functions. Joint projects allow for the sharing of costs, risks, facilities, and expertise. […] Federal efforts to encourage cooperative activities include the National Cooperative Research Act; the National Cooperative Production Act; tax changes permitting credits for industry payments to universities for R&D and deductions for contributions of equipment used in academic research; and amendments to the patent laws vesting title to inventions made under federal funding in universities. Technology transfer from the government to the private sector is facilitated by several laws. In addition, there are various ongoing cooperative programs supported by multiple federal departments and agencies. Given the increased popularity of cooperative programs, questions might be raised as to whether they are meeting expectations. Among the issues before Congress are whether joint ventures contribute to industrial competitiveness and what role, if any, the government has in facilitating such arrangements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2011-12-07
• Small-scale Terrorist Attacks Using Chemical and Biological Agents: An Assessment Framework and Preliminary Comparisons [May 20, 2004]

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  "This report, which will be updated as necessary, presents a means of assessing the relative threat from terrorist-use of individual chemical, biological, and toxin agents. It focuses on small-scale, targeted chemical and biological attacks, rather than mass-casualty attacks. The framework considers the elements of access, public health impact, medical treatment, prophylaxis, and dissemination. Other factors that may affect potential use by terrorists include the range of lethality, covert employment of an agent, and the availability of dual-use technologies. The results of this framework may be useful in addressing the threat these agents pose, for example by indicating priorities for countermeasure funding. Other uses include weighing the potential effectiveness of policy options, assessing threat reduction approaches to specific agents, and serving as a resource for developing other specialized frameworks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Shea, Dana A.; Gottron, Frank

  2004-05-20