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Examination of the Issues Surrounding Biotechnology Patenting and Its Effect Upon Entrepreneurial Companies [August 31, 2000]
From the Document: "The biotechnology industry is notable both for its heavy concentration of small businesses and its weighty research and development (R&D) expenditures. Given the small size and heavy expenses of many biotechnology firms, their ability to raise venture capital may be of some consequence. The patent law has been identified as a facilitator of these R&D financing efforts. […] Two principal issues have arisen regarding biotechnology patenting. First, observers have fundamentally questioned whether patents should be granted for living inventions, genetic materials and other biotechnologies. Ethical issues, concerns that biotechnology patenting promotes animal suffering and decreases genetic diversity, as well as regard for the traditional agricultural community animate many of these objections. Supporters of biotechnology patenting counter that trade secret protection is a less attractive social alternative, observe that patents have long been granted for biotechnologies, and question whether the patent law is the appropriate vehicle for technology assessment. Commentators have also differed over the extent to which an inventor must show a specific, practical use for a biotechnology in order to be awarded a patent. Congress may choose to exercise oversight on these issues. Such consideration would likely include examination of U.S. commitments in international agreements along with other factors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Thomas, John R.
2000-08-31
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Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1992-1999 [August 18, 2000]
"This report is prepared annually to provide unclassified quantitative data on conventional arms transfers to developing nations by the United States and foreign countries for the preceding eight calendar years. Some general data are provided on worldwide conventional arms transfers, but the principal focus is the level of arms transfers by major weapons suppliers to nations in the developing world. Developing nations continue to be the primary focus of foreign arms sales activity by weapons suppliers. During the years 1992-1999, the value of arms transfer agreements with developing nations comprised 68.3% of all such agreements worldwide. More recently, arms transfer agreements have declined generally, but those with developing nations still constituted 66.4% of all such agreements globally from 1996-1999, and 68% of these agreements in 1999."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2000-08-18
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Appropriations for FY2001: Defense [August 11, 2000]
From the Document: "Appropriations are one part of a complex federal budget process that includes budget resolutions, appropriations (regular, supplemental, and continuing) bills, rescissions, and budget reconciliation bills. The process begins with the President's budget request and is bounded by the rules of the House and Senate, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 (as amended), the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990, and current program authorizations. This report is a guide to one of the 13 regular appropriations bills that Congress considers each year. It is designed to supplement the information provided by the House and Senate Defense Appropriations Subcommittees. It summarizes the current legislative status of the bill, its scope, major issues, funding levels, and related legislative activity. The report lists the key CRS staff relevant to the issues covered and related CRS products. This report is updated as soon as possible after major legislative developments, especially following legislative action in the committees and on the floor of the House and Senate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Daggett, Stephen
2000-08-11
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Venezuela Under President Chavez: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy in 2000 [Updated August 8, 2000]
"Although Venezuela has had a history of democratic rule since 1958, the election of former coup leader and populist Hugo Chavez as President in December 1998 has raised speculation about the future of Venezuelan democracy. The watershed election, in which Chavez captured 56% of the vote, illustrated Venezuelans' rejection of the country's two traditional parties. Chavez pledged to improve Venezuelans' declining standard of living, reform Venezuela's corrupt political system, and curb the autonomy of the state-owned oil company. Since 1998, Venezuela has undergone enormous political change and has a new constitution in place. Voters once again went to the polls on July 30, 2000 for a so-called mega-election, in which Chavez won re-election to a six-year term under the country's new constitution. Some observers fear that President Chavez is moving toward authoritarian rule and point to his domination of state institutions. Meanwhile, Venezuela has yet to rebound from a deep recession caused by the fall in world oil prices in 1998, despite a rise in the price of oil, the country's main export. U.S. interests in Venezuela include the continued flow of oil exports at a reasonable and stable price; the preservation of constitutional democracy; and continued close anti-narcotics cooperation. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Bius, Tracy
2000-08-08
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China and the WTO: Labor Issues [Updated July 21, 2000]
"China's prospective membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) raises issues among some U.S. workers and organized labor about job and wage security. Many labor groups argue that Mexico's threat to U.S. jobs and wages since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) could be dwarfed by China's threat as a result of closer economic ties. China's average manufacturing wages, at about $0.25 per hour, are about one-fifth as great as Mexico's, and about one-fiftieth as much as total compensation for manufacturing workers in the United states. China's labor force is 18 times that of Mexico and five times that of the United States. Most business groups argue that U.S. businesses in China pay much higher than average wages, that free trade creates both "winners" and "losers," and that China's WTO accession will greatly expand U.S. exports and jobs. On May 24, 2000, the House passed H.R. 4444 granting permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) with China. It would also set up a Congressional-Executive Commission to monitor Beijing's human rights compliance and codify anti-surge protection measures contained in the U.S.-China bilateral agreement. Related legislation includes proposals for an expanded adjustment assistance program for workers displaced from their jobs by possible increased trade with China. The Senate is not likely to vote on its version of PNTR legislation (S. 2277) until September." -- Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolle, Mary Jane
2000-07-21
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Supplemental Appropriations for FY2000: Plan Colombia, Kosovo, Foreign Debt Relief, Home Energy Assistance, and Other Initiatives [Updated July 5, 2000]
"Early in each new session of Congress, the Administration routinely submits requests for supplemental appropriations for the current fiscal year. By late April 2000, through several submissions to Congress, President Clinton had requested $5 billion in FY2000 supplemental appropriations, including $955 million for a counternarcotics initiative in Colombia and the Andean region, about $2 billion for DOD peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, $600 million for diplomatic support and economic aid related to Kosovo and the Balkans, $210 million for poor country debt relief, $600 million for home energy assistance to low income American families affected by high home heating oil prices and weather emergencies, and $426 million for domestic disaster relief that mostly involves ongoing post-1999 hurricane cleanup efforts. The Administration designated nearly all as emergency requirements for FY2000, thereby eliminating the need to reduce existing appropriations to offset the costs of additional spending. The White House proposed a limited number of offsets, rescissions, transfers, and delays in funding obligations totaling about $750 million."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Daggett, Stephen; Nowels, Larry Q.; Tarnoff, Curt
2000-07-05
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Iraq's Opposition Movements [Updated June 27, 2000]
"Many in Congress and the Administration agree that the only way to blunt the long-term threat from Iraq is to remove Saddam Husayn from power. The Iraq Liberation Act (H.R. 4655, P.L. 105-338), signed October 31, 1998, gives the President authority to provide up to $97 million worth of defense articles to support an insurgency against Saddam. However, there are disagreements over the viability of the opposition and over how aggressively the United States should support the opposition groups. This report will be updated to reflect legislative and other developments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2000-06-27
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Electronic Commerce: An Introduction [June 27, 2000]
"Electronic commercial transactions over the Internet, or . e-commerce,. have grown so fast over the last five years that many experts continue to underestimate its growth and development. Whether retail business-to-customer or business-to-business transactions, e-commerce shows no signs of slowing down. In turn, policymakers both in the United States and abroad are likely to face increasingly complex issues of security, privacy, taxation, infrastructure development and other issues in 2000 and beyond. This report will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McLoughlin, Glenn J.
2000-06-27
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Posse Comitatus Act and Related Matters: The Use of the Military to Execute Civilian Law [Updated June 1, 2000]
"The Posse Comitatus Act outlaws willful use of any part of the Army or Air Force to execute the law unless expressly authorized by the Constitution or an Act of Congress. History supplies the grist for an argument that the Constitution prohibits military involvement in civilian affairs subject to only limited alterations by Congress or the President, but the courts do not appear to have ever accepted the argument unless violation of more explicit constitutional command could also be shown. The provision for express constitutional authorization when in fact the Constitution contains no such express authorizations has been explained alternatively as a meaningless political face saving device or as an unartful reference to the President's constitutional powers. The express statutory exceptions include the legislation which allows the President to use military force to suppression insurrection, 10 U.S.C. 331-335, and sections which permit the Department of Defense to provide federal, state and local police with information and equipment, 10 U.S.C. 371-381."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2000-06-01
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Disaster Mitigation Assistance Bills in the 106th Congress: Comparison of Provisions [May 5, 2000]
"The Administration initiative to shift federal emergency management policy away from a 'response and recovery' emphasis has generated little congressional controversy, although some have raised concerns about the cost effectiveness of implementing a mitigation strategy. Greater attention, it is generally argued, should be given to mitigation (loss reduction) efforts before disasters occur in order to reduce future losses. Legislation (H.R. 707, S. 1691) pending before the 106th Congress would amend the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (the Stafford Act) which authorizes federal assistance when the President declares that a catastrophe has overwhelmed state and local resources. Some future disasters may be prevented, or their impact lessened, by taking action beforehand. State and local governments have lowered disaster costs by retrofitting buildings in earthquake zones, elevating structures in floodplains, revising and enforcing building codes, or modifying land use plans. Advocates of the legislation seek to support these and other mitigation efforts. H.R. 707 and S. 1691 would amend the Stafford Act to shift federal policy toward predisaster hazard mitigation. Both bills contain three titles, share an overall intent, and contain roughly similar provisions. Title I of each bill stresses the need to prepare for disasters and to take mitigative steps, and includes new authority for predisaster hazard mitigation grants. Title II of each bill would amend Stafford Act provisions concerning administrative reimbursement and facility repair and replacement authority. Also, private nonprofit organizations would need to apply for Small Business Administration loans before applying for Stafford Act assistance to repair or replace damaged facilities. Title III in both bills consists of miscellaneous changes."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bea, Keith
2000-05-05
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Chechnya Conflict: Recent Developments [Updated May 3, 2000]
"This report examines military airstrikes and ground operations that Russia launched against its Chechnya region in late September 1999. It provides background information on earlier Chechen guerrilla attacks on the neighboring Dagestan region of Russia and on the unsolved terrorist bombing of several apartment buildings in Russia. Current problems of governance in Chechnya are discussed, as well as Chechnya's response to the Russian offensive. The concerns of the United States and other Western governments about the conflict are examined. Amap is included. This product may be updated. Related products include CRS Issue Brief 92089, Russia, updated regularly; and CRS Reports 95-207, Russian Conflict in Chechnya; 95-338, Beyond Chechnya: Some Options; 96-193, Chechnya Conflict: Recent Developments; and 96-974, Russia: Chechnya at Peace? This report supercedes CRS Report RS20358, Chechnya Conflict."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2000-05-03
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Natural Resources and Environment Function in the FY2001 Federal Budget: An Overview of Programs and Funding [April 17, 2000]
"Function 300 of the federal budget includes activities related to natural resources and the environment and is divided into five subfunctions: water resources, conservation and land management, recreational resources, pollution control and abatement, and research and technical support. The House and Senate passed the conference agreement on the FY2001 budget resolution (H.Con.Res. 290, H.Rept. 106-577) on April 13, 2000. It provides $25.1 billion in new budget authority for Function 300, $600 million more than the revised FY2000 level of $24.5 billion and $850 million less than requested. It also provides $25.0 billion in outlays for Function 300, $800 million more than the revised FY2000 level of $2 4.2 billion and $30 million less than requested. The conference agreement also includes the sense of the House on estimating the impact of regulations on the private sector and increasing the oversight of natural resources and environmental programs. The conference committee did not adopt a controversial Senate provision which assumed future revenues from leasing the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge for oil and gas exploration. Based on the policies and amounts in the budget resolution, the House and Senate Appropriations Committees will allocate funding for Function 300 to various federal agencies under six appropriations bills."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bearden, David M.
2000-04-17
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Mexico's Counter-Narcotics Efforts Under Zedillo, December 1994 to March 2000 [March 16, 2000]
"This report provides information on Mexico's counter-narcotics efforts under the presidency of Ernesto Zedillo from December 1994 to March 2000, with emphasis on the last year. The report focuses on (1) Mexico's share of illicit drug traffic to the United States, (2) Mexico's efforts to control drug trafficking (seizures, arrests, eradication), and (3) Mexico's cooperation with the United States in counter-narcotics efforts."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-
2000-03-16
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Russian Capital Flight, Economic Reforms, and U.S. Interests: An Analysis [Updated March 10, 2000]
"Russian capital flight is a longstanding problem with negative effects on the partially reformed Russian economy. Recent reports of Russian money laundering and other financial scandals involving the Russian Central Bank, the Bank of New York, other commercial banks, and even former President Yeltsin's household involve forms of capital flight and have drawn greater attention to the problem. They have been the subjects of Congressional hearings and have focused the attention of Members of Congress and others on U.S. interests in Russia and the effectiveness of U.S. policies. Recent legislation has been proposed as a result of concern over these scandals and Russian capital flight. This report will be updated as events warrant. For additional information see CRS Issue Brief, Russia: Issue Brief, IB92089."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hardt, John P.; Cooper, William H., 1949-
2000-03-10
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Taiwan Security Enhancement Act and Underlying Issues in U.S. Policy [Updated March 1, 2000]
"Taiwan has become an increasingly controversial issue in U.S.-China relations, and has attracted more attention from Congress. Some Members believe that China poses more of a threat now to Taiwan than in the past, while they see Taiwan's ability to defend itself as having eroded over time. Questions have also been raised about U.S. policy toward Taiwan, and particularly about the consistency and credibility of U.S. defense commitments as spelled out in P.L. 96-8, the Taiwan Relations Act. In response to these growing concerns, Members of the 106th Congress have introduced the Taiwan Security Enhancement Act (S. 693, H.R. 1838), legislation to enhance U.S.-Taiwan military communication and cooperation, and strengthen Taiwan's security. The Administration says it shares the desire to bolster Taiwan, but sees the legislation as unnecessarily provocative and potentially harmful to US. security interests. This report reviews what the legislation does, discusses its political implications and its status, and assesses how the measure compares with current U.S. policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dumbaugh, Kerry
2000-03-01
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NAFTA: Related Environmental Issues and Initiatives [March 1, 2000]
"The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) includes several environment-related provisions, that while limited, were lauded for their inclusion in a trade agreement. However, further environmental (and labor) assurances were needed to secure passage of NAFTA, and ultimately, the negotiating parties agreed to a side accord that promotes trilateral cooperation on environmental matters and includes provisions to address a party's failure to enforce environmental laws. Further to gain NAFTA support, the United States and Mexico agreed to establish a bilateral Border Environment Cooperation Commission and North American Development Bank to help border-area communities finance environmental infrastructure projects. The United States and Mexico also developed a cooperative plan to address a range of border environmental issues; phase two of the plan, the Border XXI Program, began in 1996. Since NAFTA's inception, its environmental implications have remained a subject of debate and legislation. Ongoing issues include NAFTA's possible environmental effects, border funding, and the implementation of NAFTA-related environmental agreements. This report provides an overview of NAFTA's environmental provisions and associated agreements and initiatives, and discusses recent issues and congressional activities. It will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2000-03-01
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Congress and the Fusion Energy Sciences Program: A Historical Analysis [January 31, 2000]
The U.S. government has been funding research into controlled thermonuclear fusion
since 1951. Since 1957, when the program was declassified, a public record is available in
the form of appropriations and authorization reports presenting congressional decisions about
fusion research. This report analyzes that record in order to assess how the program may fare
in the future. The program recently underwent a major restructuring at the direction of
Congress, and is currently establishing plans about how to proceed toward the goal of
developing a practical fusion powerplant. These plans are likely to be the subject of close
congressional scrutiny during review of the FY2001 budget request from the Department of
Energy. The report should be helpful, to Members and staff who will be part of that review,
in putting the program's budget request into perspective. It supplements a CRS Issue Brief,
IB91039, on the DOE Fusion Energy Sciences Program. This report will be updated as
appropriate.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rowberg, Richard
2000-01-31
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Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East [January 14, 2000]
"The primary purpose of this report is to describe the nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons (weapons of mass destruction or WMD) and missile programs of the countries and terrorist groups in the Middle East. An introductory section puts these weapons programs into the context of the region's strategic environment and U.S. national interests. The concluding section discusses briefly the policy options that are available to the U.S. government and to Congress, in particular, to counter the growing threat. The report does not attempt to evaluate the efficacy of current or future policies. As major changes occur in the status of WMD programs, this report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2000-01-14
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Natural Resources and Environment Function in the FY2000 Federal Budget: A Description of Programs and Funding [January 14, 2000]
"Function 300 of the federal budget funds activities related to natural resources and the environment and includes five subfunctions for water resources, conservation and land management, recreational resources, pollution control and abatement, and research and technical support. For these activities, the Administration requested $23.95 billion in budget authority and $23.75 billion in outlays for FY2000. To remain within the discretionary spending caps, the FY2000 budget resolution assumed lower funding levels for Function 300 than the Administration requested. The House passed the conference report on the FY2000 budget resolution (H.Con.Res. 68, H.Rept. 106-91) on April 14, 1999, and the Senate passed it on April 15, 1999. The conference committee adopted the House's proposal of $22.80 billion in budget authority and $22.60 billion in outlays for Function 300. The Senate had proposed lower funding levels of $21.70 billion in budget authority and $22.40 billion in outlays. The conference committee also adopted the sense of the Senate on prohibiting the use of federal funding to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto Protocol prior to Senate ratification. Based on the amounts agreed upon in the budget resolution, the House and Senate Appropriations Committees allocated funding for Function 300 to various federal agencies under six separate appropriations bills."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bearden, David M.
2000-01-14
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Cuba-U.S. Relations: Chronology of Key Events 1959-1999 [Updated December 14, 1999]
"This chronology outlines major events in U.S.-Cuban relations from Fidel Castro's rise to power in 1959 through 1999. The chronology provides more detailed information on events since 1994, including U.S. legislative action and congressional hearings and significant economic and political events in Cuba."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, John P., 1959-
1999-12-14
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Weapons of Mass Destruction - The Terrorist Threat [December 8, 1999]
The possibility of a terrorist attack using nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons is an ongoing debate in the national security policy arena. While terrorist motivations have traditionally been political ones that would not benefit from such an attack, concern is now voiced over a possible trend of inflicting greater numbers of casualties. Terrorists most likely to attempt attacks with weapons of mass destruction (WMD) are extremist religious millenarian groups and small splinter terrorist cells. Nation-states appear unlikely candidates owing to fear of severe retaliation. Terrorist ability to produce or obtain WMD may be growing due to looser controls of stockpiles and technology in the former Soviet Union and the dissemination of technology and information. However, WMD are significantly harder to produce or obtain than what is commonly depicted in the press and probably remain beyond the reach of most terrorist groups. The Central Intelligence Agency believes that it is likely that terrorists will continue to choose conventional explosives over WMD. Two groups that have warranted special attention, because they combined the motivation to use WMD with substantial resources, are the Japanese sect Aum Shinrikyo and Usama Bin Ladin's organization, Al-Quiada. This report briefly examines the debate over the nature and magnitude of the threat of terrorists using weapons of mass destruction. It discusses terrorist motivation to execute WMD attacks, the ease/difficulty of obtaining WMD capabilities, the possible magnitude and consequence of terrorist WMD attacks, and terrorist groups of interest.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bowman, Steve; Barel, Helit
1999-12-08
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Afghanistan: Connections to Islamic Movements in Central and South Asia and Southern Russia [December 7, 1999]
"After several years of relative peace in Central Asia and southern Russia, Islamic extremist movements have become more active in Russia and in Central and South Asia, threatening stability in the region. Although numerous factors might account for the upsurge in activity, several of these movements appear to have connections to the Islamic fundamentalist Taliban regime in Afghanistan. These linkages raise questions about whether the United States, as part of a broader effort to promote peace and stability in the region, should continue to engage the Taliban regime, or strongly confront it. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
1999-12-07
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Refugee Admissions and Resettlement Policy: Facts and Issues [Updated December 6, 1999]
"The refugee admissions ceiling for fiscal year 2000 is 90,000, with Europe accounting for more than half the numbers. P.L. 106-104 reauthorized the Department of Health and Human Service's Office of Refugee Resettlement (HHS/ORR) program through FY2002. P.L. 106-113, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, appropriated $426.5 million for for [sic] (HHS/ORR) for FY2000. P.L. 106-113 also extended the socalled Lautenberg amendment for an additional year; and reenacted a version of the McCain amendment, relating to Vietnamese refugees, for 2 years. The principal refugee issue in 1999 was the emergency admission of Kosovar refugees, in what was probably the most significant test of the flexibility of the refugee provisions since their enactment in 1980. The United States has admitted 15,825 Kosovar Albanians from the refugee camps in Macedonia who had close family ties here or were particularly vulnerable. The State Department reports that 2,750 refugees have returned to Kosovo. P.L. 106-31, the Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, included $100 million for resettling Kosovar refugees in the United States, plus additional funds for transporting them here. This report will be updated to reflect legislative and other action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vialet, Joyce C.
1999-12-06
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Kosovo: Lessons Learned from Operation 'Allied Force' [November 19, 1999]
From the Document: "This report, originally prepared as a memorandum for Senator William Roth, examines the 'lessons learned' of Operation Allied Force, NATO's effort to make President Milosevic of Yugoslavia yield to its demands over Kosovo. The report analyzes NATO's political and military objectives; examines why Milosevic accepted NATO's terms; and evaluates Russia's role in the conflict. The report also assesses European/Canadian shortcomings in military capabilities made evident by the conflict; reviews the performance of the three new allies and the implications of their performance for possible further enlargement of the alliance; and encapsulates the range of allied viewpoints during the conflict and the political importance of maintaining a unified NATO position. Finally, the report analyzes the implications of the conflict for non-Article V missions for NATO, and the conclusions that potential NATO adversaries might draw from the war. This report may be updated as further information on the conflict becomes available. For additional reading, see CRS Issue Brief 98041, Kosovo and U.S. Policy; Issue Brief 10027, Kosovo: U.S. and Allied Military Operations; and CRS report RL30265, Kosovo: Review and Analysis of Policy Objectives, 1998-June 1999."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallis, Paul E.
1999-11-19
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Economic Sanctions to Achieve U.S. Foreign Policy Goals: Discussion and Guide to Current Law [Updated November 1, 1999]
From the Abstract: "This report provides background on foreign policy sanctions. It addresses the following questions: Why do we apply sanctions? What objectives does the U.S. government seek to achieve when it imposes sanctions? Who imposes sanctions? What tools are available? How likely is it that sanctions will achieve the stated goal? What secondary consequences might sanctions have? What change is required for the sanctions to be lifted? Would multilateral sanctions be more desirable and achievable? The report also provides an uncomplicated map of where sanctions policies and options currently may be found in U.S. law."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Shuey, Robert
1999-11-01
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Appropriations for FY2000: Defense [October 27, 1999]
From the Document: "On October 6, conferees reached agreement on the FY[Fiscal Year]2000 defense appropriations bill, H.R. 2561, and the conference report was filed on October 8. The House approved the conference agreement by a vote of 372-55 on October 13, and the Senate approved it by a vote of 87 to 11 on October 14, and the President signed the bill into law, P.L. [Public Law] 106-79, on October 25. The key issue in the conference concerned funding for the F-22 fighter. The conference agreement provides a total of $2.522 billion for the program, including $1.222 billion for R&D [Research and Development], $1 billion for acquisition of test aircraft, and $300 million in advance FY2001 appropriations for program termination liability. The total amount is about $500 million below the request ($1.85 billion in procurement and $1.2 billion in R&D). The conference agreement also prohibits award of an initial low-rate production contract unless certain testing is successfully completed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Daggett, Stephen
1999-10-27
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Iraq: Erosion of International Isolation? [October 19, 1999]
Iraq is having some success breaking out of the isolation imposed on it after the
1991 Persian Gulf war. Iraq has reemerged as a major oil exporter, and regional and
international support for continued comprehensive sanctions against Iraq appears to be
weakening. The Clinton Administration is trying to keep Iraq diplomatically isolated,
but its top priority is to prevent Iraq from reemerging as a strategic threat to the region.
This report will be updated in response to regional developments. See CRS Issue Brief
92117, Iraqi Compliance With Ceasefire Agreements.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth; Prados, Alfred B.
1999-10-19
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Immigration Fundamentals [Updated September 15, 1999]
"Immigration to the United States is regulated by Federal law. The basic U.S. law, the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), was enacted in 1952 and significantly amended since, most recently by the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996. The INA defines an alien as 'any person not a citizen or national of the United States,' and sets forth the conditions under which aliens may enter the United States. The term alien is synonymous with noncitizen. It includes aliens who are here legally, as well as aliens who are here illegally, in violation of the INA. The two basic types of legal aliens are immigrants and nonimmigrants. Immigrants are persons admitted as permanent residents of the United States. Nonimmigrants are admitted temporarily as visitors for a specific purpose -- for example, as tourists, foreign students, diplomats, temporary agricultural workers, exchange visitors, or intracompany business personnel. They are required to leave the country at the end of the time allotted them for this purpose. The conditions for the admission of immigrants are much more stringent, and fewer immigrants than nonimmigrants are admitted. Once admitted, immigrants are subject to few restrictions. They may accept and change employment, and may apply for U.S. citizenship through the naturalization process, generally after 5 years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vialet, Joyce C.
1999-09-15
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Kosovo: Refugee Assistance and Temporary Resettlement [Updated September 1, 1999]
"The State Department estimates that 90% of Kosovar Albanians fled or were driven from their homes after March 1998 by Yugoslav forces, with the majority leaving between March and June of 1999. At the height of the crisis, over 780,000 of them were in camps in the region, primarily Albania and Macedonia, two countries with little capacity for providing for them. Another 150,000 were scattered around Europe, principally in Germany and Switzerland, and 29 countries were providing temporary refuge to 91,000 outside of the region. On April 16, the Administration requested an emergency supplemental which included money for humanitarian assistance in Kosovo. On April 21, Vice President Gore announced up to 20,000 Kosovars with close family ties or in vulnerable circumstances would be resettled in the United States from Macedonian camps. Approximately 13,000 have been admitted under the refugee provisions of the immigration law, and many are now returning to Kosovo. P.L. 106-31 (H.R. 1141), signed on May 21, appropriates more than $1 billion in humanitarian programs for Kosovo. With the peace agreement of June 9, the refugees returned quickly (over 770,000 have returned since mid June) and the donor countries began focusing on temporary humanitarian aid and long-term reconstruction aid to Kosovo. Most of the reconstruction aid is expected to come from the Europeans. Additional U.S. assistance is expected to be appropriated in the regular foreign aid and defense appropriation legislation. It is not anticipated that this report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McHugh, Lois; Vialet, Joyce C.
1999-09-01
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Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1991-1998 [August 4, 1999]
"This report is prepared annually to provide unclassified quantitative data on conventional arms transfers to developing nations by the United States and foreign countries for the preceding eight calendar years. This report covers the years from 1991-1998. It also provides some general data on worldwide conventional arms transfers for the same time period, but the principal focus is on data illustrating the levels of such arms transfers by major weapons suppliers to nations in the developing world. Data on deliveries by key suppliers of fourteen categories of conventional weapons systems is also included for 1991-1998. The data in the report show how global patterns of conventional arms transfers have changed in the post-Cold War and post-Persian Gulf War years. Despite world changes since the Cold War's end, the developing nations continue to be the primary focus of foreign transfer activity by conventional weapons suppliers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1999-08-04
