Advanced search    Help

Clear all search criteria

Only 2/3! You are seeing results from the Public Collection, not the complete Full Collection. Sign in to search everything (see eligibility).

• North Korea: Economic Sanctions [Updated January 24, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "U.S. economic sanctions are imposed against North Korea for four primary reasons: (1) North Korea is seen as posing a threat to U.S. national security; (2) North Korea is designated by the Secretary of State as a state sponsor or supporter of international terrorism; (3) North Korea is a Marxist-Leninist state, with a Communist government; and (4) North Korea has been found by the State Department to have engaged in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In accordance with U.S. law, the United States limits some trade, denies trade in dual use goods and services, limits foreign aid, and opposes entry into or support from international financial institutions. This report explains the U.S. economic sanctions currently in place, and summarizes recent events as they relate to the potential application of additional restrictions. It will be updated as necessary."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rennack, Dianne E.

  2003-01-24
• Nuclear, Biological, Chemical, and Missile Proliferation Sanctions: Selected Current Law [Updated January 24, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The use of economic sanctions to stem weapons proliferation acquired a new dimension in the 1990s. While earlier legislation required the cutoff of foreign aid to countries engaged in specified nuclear proliferation activities and mentioned other sanctions as a possible mechanism for bringing countries into compliance with goals of treaties or international agreements, it was not until 1990 that Congress enacted explicit guidelines for trade sanctions related to missile proliferation. In that year a requirement for the President to impose sanctions against U.S. persons or foreign persons engaging in trade of items or technology listed in the Missile Technology Control Regime Annex (MTCR Annex) was added to the Arms Export Control Act and to the Export Administration Act of 1979. Subsequently, Congress legislated economic sanctions against countries that contribute to the proliferation of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons in a broad array of laws. This report offers a listing and brief description of legal provisions that require or authorize the imposition of some form of economic sanction against countries, companies, or persons who violate U.S. nonproliferation norms. For each provision, information is included on what triggers the imposition of sanctions, their duration, what authority the President has to delay or abstain from imposing sanctions, and what authority the President has to waive the imposition of sanctions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rennack, Dianne E.

  2003-01-24
• Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: Status and Trends [Updated January 24, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  The United States has long recognized the dangers inherent in the spread of nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) weapons and missiles. Despite the preeminence of U.S. military power, or perhaps because of it, these weapons continue to pose very serious threats to the United States and its foreign interests. NBC weapons could be delivered by means ranging from simple options that terrorist groups might employ (e.g., ships, trucks), to covert forces, aircraft, cruise or ballistic missiles. The total number of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons throughout the world is shrinking as the major powers scale back their inventories through unilateral reductions and arms control, but some additional countries and groups are trying to acquire these weapons. Especially since September 11, 2001, U.S. and allied leaders still debate the nature and extent of the threat, the impact on international stability, and the opportunities terrorists might exploit. This paper assembles current information on the status of weapons programs around the globe and analyzes patterns regarding the threats posed by these weapons.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Squassoni, Sharon A.

  2003-01-24
• Immigration of Agricultural and Guest Workers: Policy, Trends, and Legislative Issues [Updated January 24, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Several major proposals to revise U.S. immigration policy on agricultural guest workers were introduced in the 107th Congress. Though prior Congresses had debated but not enacted such bills, there appeared to be more momentum in 2001. President George Bush and Mexican President Vicente Fox established a Cabinet level immigration working group that was expected to offer a guest worker program as part of its package. The September 11 terrorist attacks, however, shifted the immigration policy focus, and the 107th Congress did not act on guest worker bills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2003-01-24
• Intelligence Issues for Congress [Updated January 24, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The U.S. Intelligence Community continues to adjust to the21st Century environment. Congressional and executive branch initiatives have emphasized enhancing cooperation among the different agencies that comprise the Community by giving greater managerial authority to the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). Priority continues to be placed on intelligence support to military operations and on involvement in efforts to combat transnational threats, especially international terrorism. Growing concerns about transnational threats are leading to increasingly close cooperation between intelligence and law enforcement agencies. This relationship is complicated, however, by differing roles and missions as well as statutory charters. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, for which no specific warning was provided, have led to increased emphasis on human intelligence, statutory changes permitting closer cooperation between law enforcement and intelligence agencies, and to consideration of organizational changes to the Intelligence Community."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2003-01-24
• HIV/AIDS International Programs: FY2002 Spending and FY2003 Outlook [Updated January 24, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Administration's FY2003 request for international HIV/AIDS spending would increase funding for U.S. international HIV/AIDS programs. In addition, a budget amendment submitted by President Bush on September 3, 2002, would add $100 million in FY2003 spending for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and $100 million for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to fund a mother and child HIV transmission prevention initiative. FY2003 Funds have not been requested for some international programs funded in FY2002, although $200 million is being sought for a contribution to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria -- the same amount being provided in FY2002. Appropriations bills in the House and Senate would make available additional resources for the Global Fund."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2003-01-24
• Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002. On May 26, 2004, the government of Sudan and SPLA signed three protocols on Power Sharing, on the Nuba Mountains and Southern Blue Nile, and on the long disputed Abyei area. The signing of these protocols resolved all outstanding issues between the parties. On June 5, 2004, the parties signed 'the Nairobi Declaration on the Final Phase of Peace in the Sudan.' On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. The signing of the Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement effectively ended the 21-year old civil war and triggered a six-year Interim Period."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2003-01-23
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-01-23
• China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the U.S. interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and missiles that could deliver them. Recipients of China's technology include Pakistan and countries that the State Department says support terrorism, such as Iran, North Korea, and Libya. The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, added an urgent U.S. interest in weapons nonproliferation. This CRS Report (superseding CRS Issue Brief IB92056) discusses the national security problem of the PRC's role in weapons proliferation and issues related to the U.S. policy response, including legislation, since the mid-1990s. The table at the end of this report summarizes the U.S. sanctions imposed on PRC entities for weapons proliferation. This CRS Report will be updated as warranted.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2003-01-23
• Pakistan-U.S. Relations [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Major areas of U.S. concern regarding Pakistan include the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; counter-terrorism; settlement of the Kashmir dispute; democratization and human rights; and economic reform and development. A potential Pakistan-India nuclear arms race continues to be the focus of U.S. nonproliferation efforts in South Asia and a central issue in U.S. relations with both countries. This attention intensified following nuclear tests by both India and Pakistan in May 1998. South Asia is viewed by some observers as an arena for the possible use of such weapons, as both countries have deployed nuclear-capable ballistic missiles and institutionalized nuclear command structures. India and Pakistan have fought three full-scale wars since 1947. Pakistan-U.S. cooperation began in the mid-1950s as a security arrangement growing from U.S. concerns about Soviet expansion- ism and Pakistan's fear of neighboring India. Cooperation peaked during the 1979-89 So- viet occupation of Afghanistan. Pakistan-U.S. ties weakened following the October 1990 cutoff of U.S. aid and arms sales to Islamabad, which were suspended by President Bush under Section 620E(e) of the Foreign Assis- tance Act (the so-called Pressler Amendment). Further U.S. sanctions were imposed on Pakistan (and India) as a result of their 1998 nuclear tests."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kronstadt, K. Alan

  2003-01-23
• Korea: U.S.-Korean Relations - Issues for Congress [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "North Korea's decision in December 2002 to restart nuclear installations at Yongbyon that were shut down under the U.S.-North Korean Agreed Framework of 1994 and its announced withdrawal from the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty creates an acute foreign policy problem for the United States. North Korea's major motive appears to be to escalate pressure on the Bush Administration to negotiate a nuclear agreement that would provide new U.S. political and economic benefits to North Korea, starting with Pyongyang's proposed non-aggression pact. […] The main elements of Bush Administration policy are (1) terminating the Agreed Framework; (2) no negotiations with North Korea until it dismantles its nuclear program; (3) assembling an international coalition to apply economic pressure on North Korea; (4) planning for future economic sanctions and military interdiction against North Korea; and (5) warning North Korea not to reprocess nuclear weapons-grade plutonium, asserting that 'all options are open,' including military options. China, South Korea, and Russia have criticized the Bush Administration for not negotiating with North Korea, and they voice opposition to economic sanctions and the use of force against Pyongyang. However, Administration diplomacy has made progress in persuading Japan and South Korea to support economic sanctions if North Korea escalates provocations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Niksch, Larry A.

  2003-01-23
• Immigration: Legislative Issues on Nonimmigrant Professional Specialty (H-1B) Workers [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "In FY2001, the majority (58%) of newly arriving H-1B workers had Bachelor's degrees, and an additional 30% had Master's degrees. Over half (55%) reported occupations in computer-related fields. The only country sending more than 10% of the newly arriving H-1B workers was India with 45% of the total. The median annual compensation for a newly arriving H-1B worker in FY2001 was $50,000. Those opposing any further increases or easing of admissions requirements assert that there is no compelling evidence of a labor shortage in these professional areas that cannot be met by newly graduating students and retraining the existing U.S. work force. They argue further that the education of U.S. students and training of U.S. workers should be prioritized and that reliance on foreign workers would stymie those objectives. Proponents of current H-1B levels say that the education of students and retraining of the current workforce is a long-term response, and they assert that H-1B workers are essential if the United States is to remain globally competitive. Some proponents argue that employers should be free to hire the best people for the jobs, maintaining that market forces should regulate H-1B admissions, not an arbitrary ceiling."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-01-23
• Chemical Plant Security [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  Chemical facilities might be vulnerable to direct attacks by terrorists or covert use of business contacts, facilities, and materials to gain access to potentially dangerous chemicals. Because few terrorist attacks have been attempted on U.S. chemical facilities, the estimated risk of death and injury in the near future is low, but risks may be increasing, as available evidence indicates that many facilities may lack adequate safeguards. EPA authority and the ability of existing legislation to regulate in this area is unclear (Public Law 107-296, establishing the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), does not address chemical plant security directly), therefore Congress might rely on existing mechanisms in the public and private sectors to evaluate and improve chemical site security, while waiting for better information about the potential harm from terrorist attacks on chemical facilities. Policy makers face at least three key issues: the effect of public disclosure; the relative importance of diverse risks; and who should be responsible for achieving results.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schierow, Linda-Jo

  2003-01-23
• Access to Government Information in the United States [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The Constitution of the United States makes no specific allowance for any one of the co-equal branches to have access to information held by the others and contains no provision expressly establishing a procedure for, or a right of, public access to government information. Nonetheless, Congress has legislated various public access laws. These include two records access statutes--the Freedom of Information Act (5 U.S.C. 552) and the Privacy Act (5 U.S.C. 552a)--and two meetings access statutes--the Federal Advisory Committee Act (5 U.S.C. App.) and the Government in the Sunshine Act (5 U.S.C. 552b). Moreover, due to the American separation of powers model of government, interbranch conflicts over the accessibility of information are neither unexpected nor necessarily destructive. The federal courts, historically, have been reluctant to review and resolve "political questions" involving information disputes between Congress and the executive branch. Although there is considerable interbranch cooperation, such conflicts probably will continue to occur on occasion." -- Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Relyea, Harold

  2003-01-23
• Iraq: Map Sources [Updated January 23, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "This report identifies selected Web sites for maps of Iraq. Selected government, library, and organizational Web site addresses are provided. Maps of the Middle East, Iraq, and the No-Fly Zone are also provided. This report will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nelson, Marilyn L.

  2003-01-23
• North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program [Updated January 22, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "North Korea's decisions to restart nuclear installations at Yongbyon that were shut down under the U.S.-North Korean Agreed Framework of 1994 and withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty create an acute foreign policy problem for the United States. North Korea's major motive appears to be to escalate pressure on the Bush Administration to negotiate over Pyongyang's proposed nonaggression pact and/or a new nuclear agreement that would provide new U.S. benefits to North Korea. However, re-starting the Yongbyon facilities opens up a possible North Korean intent to stage a 'nuclear breakout' of its nuclear program and openly produce nuclear weapons within six months. North Korea's actions follow the disclosure in October 2002 that North Korea is operating a secret nuclear program based on uranium enrichment and the decision by the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO) in November 2002 to suspend shipments of heavy oil to North Korea. The main elements of Bush Administration policy are (1) terminating the Agreed Framework; (2) assembling an international coalition to pressure North Korea; and (3) proposing a dialogue with North Korea that focuses on actions by North Korea to end its nuclear program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Niksch, Larry A.

  2003-01-22
• Energy Provisions of the Farm Bill: Comparison of the New Law with Previous Law and House and Senate Bills [Updated January 22, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "On May 13, 2002, President Bush signed a new farm bill--The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (P.L. [Public Law] 107-171). The new farm bill contains many energy-related provisions. The previous farm bill was the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-127), popularly called the FAIR Act. Most of the authorities of the FAIR Act expired at the end of FY2002. Increased concerns about energy security, greenhouse gas emissions, and pollution have led to an increase in congressional interest in energy policy. In that general context, there is growing interest in biofuels (including ethanol and biodiesel), bioenergy, and biobased products as a strategy to improve domestic energy security and increase farm income. Further, open spaces used for agricultural production are seen by some as ideal places to install renewable energy systems such as wind turbines and solar cells. In addition, farmers have been concerned with high energy costs because energy can be a major production cost. Although there were no energy provisions in the FAIR Act, the final version of the farm bill contains several provisions on renewable energy, biomass and biofuels, carbon sequestration, and other energy issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2003-01-22
• Saudi Arabia: Current Issues and U.S. Relations [Updated January 22, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Saudi Arabia, a monarchy ruled by the Saudi dynasty, enjoys special importance in the international community because of its unique association with the Islamic religion and its oil wealth. Since the establishment of the modern Saudi kingdom in 1932, it has benefitted from a stable political system based on a smooth process of succession to the throne and an increasingly prosperous economy dominated by the oil sector. Decrees by King Fahd in March 1992 establishing an appointive consultative council and provincial councils and promulgating a basic law providing for certain citizens' rights could signal a gradual trend toward a more open political system. In January 2003, Crown Prince Abdullah (who has effectively headed the government during the illness of King Fahd) proposed an 'Arab Charter' advocating internal reforms, increased political participation, and regional economic integration. […] The United States and Saudi Arabia have long-standing economic and defense ties. A series of informal agreements, statements by successive U.S. administrations, and military deployments have demonstrated a strong U.S. security commitment to Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia was a key member of the allied coalition that expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait in 1991, and over 5,000 U.S. troops remain in the country. […] U.S. officials have cited Saudi support in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, including intelligence sharing, law enforcement activities, and tracking of terrorist financing. Some commentators maintain that Saudi domestic and foreign policies have created a climate that may have contributed to terrorist acts by Islamic radicals. Saudi officials reject this viewpoint and maintain that they are working with the United States to combat terrorism. Other principal issues of bilateral interest include the Saudi position on the Arab-Israeli conflict, security in the post-war Gulf region, arms transfers to Saudi Arabia, Saudi external aid programs, bilateral trade relationships, and Saudi policies involving human rights and democracy. In early 2002, Crown Prince Abdullah proposed a peace initiative based on Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories in return for normal relations between Arab states and Israel."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-01-22
• Military Transformation: Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance [Updated January 17, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  From the Summary: "The Department of Defense (DOD) indicates it is undertaking a major alteration in its capabilities, from a force designed to fight the Soviet Union to one tailored to 21st century adversaries including terrorism. This shift has been prompted by the perception of a changing threat and improved technology, especially information technology. As the military services attempt to increase the agility and versatility of their weapon systems, they also see a need to increase the capabilities of military intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) to support the new weapon systems and operating methods against these new threats. [...] In addition, ISR activities should, in the aggregate, provide a world-wide perspective of the threat, 'fuse' all types of intelligence into one picture, access extensive details about the enemy, and monitor specific targets for long periods of time. [...] Many observers believe military ISR has already achieved some transformation, as shown in the war in Afghanistan by the military's ability to detect a target and destroy it within minutes. Proposals to make revolutionary changes in analysis include using contractors to produce competing unclassified analyses, developing artificial intelligence capabilities for database work, and establishing more operations analysis centers. The military intelligence community is supported by the national intelligence community, which even before the September 11 attacks was under intense scrutiny. Therefore, the aspects of the national intelligence community's operations in which Congress has expressed interest directly affect the quality of military intelligence."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Chizek, Judy G.

  2003-01-17
• Overview of the U.S. Public Health System in the Context of Bioterrorism [January 17, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  The anthrax attacks in 2001, along with the events of September 11, have heightened concern about the nation's ability to respond to bioterrorist attacks. The role of public health in bioterrorism preparedness and response is to plan and coordinate emergency medical and public health response capabilities, to detect, investigate and identify disease outbreaks using surveillance systems, epidemiology and laboratory services, and to communicate rapidly and clearly with response partners, health practitioners, the media and the public. The capacity to fulfill these responsibilities depends on the strength of the infrastructure that supports the provision of public health services. The public health infrastructure is the organizations, people and data systems needed to assure the provision of essential public health services. Even before September 11 and last fall's anthrax attacks, a consensus had emerged among public health experts that the public health system had deteriorated. Recent congressional action has provided funding and guidance to improve public health capacity at the federal, state and local level. Challenges remain in a variety of areas, including: coordination and communication between public health officials and other participants in public health preparedness and response, upgrading data and information systems capabilities, improving laboratory capacity, increasing emergency medical response capacity, improving the skills and education of the public health workforce, and conducting research to improve bioterrorism prevention, detection and treatment options. Finally, many worry about how to be sure that the increased funding devoted to increasing public health capacity yields results in improved preparedness and response capability.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Harvey, Holly

  2003-01-17
• Agricultural Trade Issues in the 107th Congress [Updated January 17, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The 107th Congress considered a variety of trade issues with implications for the U.S. agricultural sector...U.S. agricultural exports are forecast to improve through FY2003... Congress closely monitored the Administration's involvement in various trade negotiations that could further liberalize trade in agriculture and other economic sectors. Imports... Following agreement on the terms of China's accession to the WTO, Congress focused on ensuring that China adheres to its commitments to open markets to U.S. agricultural products. Despite such commitments, U.S. agricultural exporters continue to encounter major obstacles to Chinese markets... Lawmakers introduced bills to ease the tight rules on permitted food sales to Cuba... USDA's FY2003 appropriation, not finalized by the end of the 107th Congress, will determine annual funding for USDA trade and food aid programs. Separate measures address concerns about the treatment of genetically engineered crops and food products in international trade." - Excerpts from Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jurenas, Remy; Hanrahan, John A.

  2003-01-17
• Broadband Internet Access and the Digital Divide: Federal Assistance Programs [Updated January 17, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  From the Summary: "The 'digital divide' is a term that has been used to characterize a gap between 'information haves and have-nots,' or in other words, between those Americans who use or have access to telecommunications technologies (e.g., telephones, computers, the Internet) and those who do not. One important subset of the digital divide debate concerns high-speed Internet access, also known as broadband. Broadband is provided by a series of technologies (e.g. cable, telephone wire, satellite, wireless) that give users the ability to send and receive data at volumes and speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. Broadband technologies are currently being deployed by the private sector throughout the United States. While the numbers of new broadband subscribers continue to grow, studies conducted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the Department of Commerce (DOC), and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) suggest that the rate of broadband deployment in urban and high income areas may be outpacing deployment in rural and low-income areas. Some policymakers, believing that disparities in broadband access across American society could have adverse economic and social consequences on those left behind, assert that the federal government should play a more active role to avoid a 'digital divide' in broadband access. One approach is for the federal government to provide financial assistance to support broadband deployment in underserved areas. Others, however, believe that federal assistance for broadband deployment is not appropriate. Some opponents question the reality of the 'digital divide,' and argue that federal intervention in the broadband marketplace would be premature and, in some cases, counterproductive. Legislation introduced into the 107th Congress sought to provide federal financial assistance for broadband deployment in the form of grants, loans, subsidies, and tax credits. Similar legislation is likely to be introduced into the 108th Congress. In assessing this legislation, several policy issues arise. For example, is the current status of broadband deployment data an adequate basis on which to base policy decisions? Given the early stages of broadband deployment, is federal assistance premature, or do the risks of delaying assistance to underserved areas outweigh the benefits of avoiding federal intervention in the marketplace? And finally, if one assumes that governmental action is necessary to spur broadband deployment in underserved areas, which specific approaches, either separately or in combination, are likely to be most effective?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kruger, Lennard G.

  2003-01-17
• NATO Enlargement [Updated January 16, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "This report provides a brief summary of the last round of NATO enlargement, then sketches recent events culminating in the NATO summit in Prague on November 21-22, 2002. The report analyzes the key military and political issues that affect the current debate over seven prospective members named at Prague. It then provides an overview of the positions of the allies and of Russia on enlargement, citing the important potential effects of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, on the United States. It concludes with a discussion of current legislation on enlargement before Congress. This report will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gallis, Paul E.

  2003-01-16
• Palestinians and Middle East Peace: Issues for the United States [Updated January 16, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The United States began contacts with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in December 1988, after the PLO accepted Israel's right to exist, accepted U.N. Resolutions 242 and 338 that call for an exchange of land for peace, and renounced terrorism. The United States continues its contacts with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority elected in January 1996, and is an active broker in the continuing Middle East peace process. […] On May 4, 1994, Israel and the PLO signed an agreement providing for the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho (withdrawal completed May 11, 1994). The Interim Agreement signed on September 28, 1995 (also called Oslo II or the Taba Agreement), provided for elections for the 88-seat Palestinian Assembly, the release of Israeli-held prisoners, Israeli withdrawal from six West Bank cities, and other issues. The Israelis withdrew from the West Bank cities by the end of 1995, and the Palestinian Assembly was elected on January 20, 1996, and sworn in on March 7, 1996. Israel and the Palestinians agreed to an Israeli withdrawal from Hebron in January 1997, and on October 23, 1998 signed the Wye agreement to meet previous commitments. The peace talks stalled at Camp David in July 2000, and remain suspended since the Palestinian uprising began in September. Some 1,493 Palestinians and 585 Israelis have died in the continuing confrontation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2003-01-16
• Egypt-United States Relations [January 16, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "U.S.-Egyptian relations are tied to maintaining regional stability, improving bilateral relations focused on Egyptian economic development and military cooperation, developing Egypt's democracy, sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and continuing U.S. foreign assistance to Egypt. Experience gained from Egyptian-U.S. joint military exercises proved valuable in easing coordination during the February 1991 Desert Storm operation reversing Iraqi aggression against Kuwait. Egypt is a leader and moderating influence among many Arab, African, Islamic, and Third World states. Among the current issues in U.S.-Egyptian relations are the shared concerns over the terrorist attacks against Egyptian police, religious, government, and tourist facilities, and what those attacks may signal for Egypt's domestic stability. The two nations may disagree over Egypt's interpretation of applying human rights practices to Islamic terrorists. The two countries disagree over the speed and depth, but not the need for some of Egypt's economic reforms. Egypt and the United States agree on the importance of the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, the need to continue current Arab-Israel peace talks, and the need for regional stability. The two nations agree on Egypt's determination to introduce democratic reforms to Egypt. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of over $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. The United States will reduce Economic Support Funds (ESF) to about $400 million per year by 2008 in keeping with a plan to reduce aid to Israel. The Administration requested $655 million in economic grants and $1.3 billion in military grants for FY2002 for Egypt."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2003-01-16
• Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance [January 16, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "Israel is not economically self-sufficient, and relies on foreign assistance and borrowing to maintain its economy. Since 1985, the United States has provided $3 billion in grants annually to Israel. Since 1976, Israel has been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance, and is the largest cumulative recipient since World War II. In addition to U.S. assistance, it is estimated that Israel receives about $1 billion annually through philanthropy, an equal amount through short- and long- term commercial loans, and around $1 billion in Israel Bonds proceeds. Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu told a joint session of Congress on July 10, 1996, that Israel would reduce its need for U.S. aid over the next four years. In January 1998, Finance Minister Neeman proposed eliminating the $1.2 billion economic aid and increasing the $1.8 billion in military aid by $60 million per year during a 10-year period beginning in the year 2000. The FY1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002 appropriations bills included cuts of $120 million in economic aid and an increases of $60 million in military aid for each year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2003-01-16
• Intelligence Community and 9/11: Congressional Hearings and the Status of the Investigation [Updated January 16, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 led many to inquire whether there had been a failure by United States intelligence agencies to collect all available information about the plots that led to the attacks, to analyze it properly, and disseminate it in time to protect the American public. Congressional intelligence committees responded by launching an unprecedented Joint Inquiry to investigate the Intelligence Community's record in regard to the 9/11 attacks and make recommendations for further legislative action. The Joint Inquiry began its investigation in February 2002 and held public hearings in September and October. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations were made public in December 2002; release of the final report is anticipated in 2003."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2003-01-16
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated January 15, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  From the Summary: "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. This treaty would commit the United States to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States required to meet the target is estimated to be lower than 7%. The Clinton Administration did not submit the protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997-meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases-had not been met. However, in late March, the Bush Administration indicated its rejection of the Kyoto Protocol and announced a cabinet-level review of climate policy. This initiated a high-level but unsuccessful effort by the European nations to re-engage the United States in the Kyoto process. When the COP-6 meeting resumed in July 2001, the United States remained on the sidelines, following the Bush Administration's decision not to engage in negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. To the surprise of many, negotiators at this meeting reached agreement on most of the outstanding political issues, with compromises allowing significant credit for carbon sinks, and at the following COP-7 meeting in Marrakech, Morocco, in October- November, 2001, most remaining operational decisions were completed. As of January 3, 2003, the UNFCCC Secretariat reported that 102 nations have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, representing 43.9% of the emissions of developed countries with obligations outlined in the Protocol. In order to enter into force, the Protocol must be ratified by nations representing 55% of these emissions. In February, 2002, President Bush announced a U.S. policy for climate change that will rely on domestic, voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2003-01-15
• Trade Promotion Authority (Fast-Track Authority for Trade Agreements): Background and Developments in the 107th Congress [Updated January 14, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "One of the major trade issues in the 107th Congress was whether or not Congress would approve trade promotion authority (formerly called fast-track authority) for the President to negotiate trade agreements with expedited procedures for implementing legislation. Under this authority, Congress agrees to consider legislation to implement the trade agreements (usually nontariff trade agreements) under a procedure with mandatory deadlines, no amendment, and limited debate. The President is required to consult with congressional committees during negotiation and notify Congress at major stages. The President was granted this authority almost continuously from 1974 to 1994. After that, the authority lapsed." - From Summary. Several pieces of legislation concerning trade are discussed as well.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sek, Lenore

  2003-01-14
• Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications [Updated January 14, 2003]

  Show summary     Open resource [pdf]     (open full abstract)

  "From the Washington Administration to the present, Congress and the President have enacted eleven separate formal declarations of war against foreign nations in five different wars. Each declaration has been preceded by a presidential request either in writing or in person before a joint session of Congress. The reasons cited in justification for the requests have included armed attacks on United States territory or its citizens and threats to United States rights or interests as a sovereign nation. Congress and the President have also on a number of occasions enacted authorizations for the use of force instead of declarations of war. Most commonly, such measures have authorized the use of force against either a named country or unnamed hostile nations in a given region. In most cases the President has requested the authority, but Congress has sometimes given the President less than what he asked for. In contrast to the declarations of war, not all authorizations for the use of force have resulted in actual combat. Both declarations and authorizations require the signature of the President in order to become law."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.; Ackerman, David M.

  2003-01-14