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Iraq: Protests and the Future of U.S. Partnership [Updated November 12, 2019]
From the Document: "Mass protests and state violence against some protestors have shaken Iraq since October 2019, with more than 300 Iraqis reported dead and thousands more injured in demonstrations and isolated clashes in Baghdad and southern Iraq. Protestors and some prominent political figures have demanded the resignation of Prime Minister Adel Abd Al Mahdi and his cabinet, channeling nationalist, nonsectarian sentiment and a range of frustrations into potent rejections of the post-2003 political order. Current protests reiterate past demonstrators' concerns (with some louder critiques of Iranian interference), but the scope and endurance of the protests are unprecedented in Iraq's recent history. U.S. officials have not endorsed demands for an immediate transition, but protestors' calls for improved governance, reliable local services, more trustworthy and capable security forces, and greater economic opportunity broadly correspond to stated U.S. goals. The nature, duration, and response to the protests are deepening U.S. concerns about Iraq's stability. Related future developments could complicate U.S. efforts to partner with Iraq's government as Iraq recovers from war with the Islamic State (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL) and seeks to maintain its sovereignty. Congress is considering President Donald Trump's requests for additional military and civilian aid for Iraq without certainty about the future of Iraq's governing arrangements or how change might affect U.S. interests."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2019-11-12
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Transnational Crime Issues: Heroin Production, Fentanyl Trafficking, and U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation [Updated August 9, 2018]
From the Introduction: "The domestic opioid epidemic in the United States is raising questions among policymakers about how to address foreign sources of opioids--particularly the cultivation of opium poppy, production of heroin, and clandestine manufacture or diversion of fentanyl (a synthetic opioid) and fentanyl analogues at their foreign sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando; Rosen, Liana W.
2018-08-09
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Department of Energy Appliance and Equipment Standards Program [November 8, 2019]
From the Document: "Congress continues to consider the extent and effectiveness of energy efficiency standards. One focus is energy efficiency standards for appliances and equipment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Clark, Corrie E.
2019-11-08
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Social Security: Demographic Trends and the Funding Shortfall [November 4, 2019]
From the Introduction: "The Social Security program, or Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI), pays monthly benefits to retired or disabled workers and their families and to the family members of deceased workers. The OASDI program's ability to meet scheduled benefit payments rests upon sufficient revenues from payroll taxes, taxation on Social Security benefits, and interest earned on trust funds assets. The year 2020 marks the first since 1982 in which the OASDI program's total cost is projected to be greater than its total income. [...] The OASDI program can pay scheduled benefits while operating with a cash flow deficit (i.e., costs exceed revenues) during periods of positive trust funds balances because assets held in the trust funds can be redeemed to augment continuing income. However, this process cannot last indefinitely. As shown in Figure 1, a cash flow deficit is projected to persist throughout the 75- year projection period (2019-2093). This report presents data showing that the projected deficits are the result of rising costs associated with demographic changes, outlines how these demographic changes will impact the OASDI program's ability to fulfill benefit payments, and discusses some options policymakers have to address the program's financial shortfall."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Huston, Barry F.
2019-11-04
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North American Development Bank [Updated November 4, 2019]
From the Introduction: "The North American Development Bank (NADB) is a binational financial institution created and funded by Mexico and the United States. The NADB provides loans and grants to public and private entities for environmental and infrastructure projects on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border. Modeled after the multilateral development banks (MDBs), such as the World Bank, the NADB has a unique environmental focus and is the only development bank that also finances projects in the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2019-11-04
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Cuba: Issues for the 111th Congress [September 4, 2009]
This report describes the main issues and developments in U.S. policy toward Cuba. "Cuba remains a hard-line communist state with a poor record on human rights. The country's political succession from the long-ruling Fidel Castro to his brother Raúl was characterized by a remarkable degree of stability. Fidel stepped down from power temporarily in July 2006 because of health reasons, and Raúl assumed provisional control of the government until February 2008, when he officially became President. After Raúl Castro officially assumed the presidency, his government announced a series of economic changes that included lifting restrictions on the sale of some electronic consumer products and cell phones. A major reform effort has focused on the agriculture sector in an effort to boost food production. While additional economic changes are likely, there has been disappointment that further reforms have not been forthcoming. The economy was hard hit by storms in 2008 that resulted in $10 billion in damages, and the current global financial crisis is causing further strains. Few observers expect the government to ease its tight control over the political system, which is backed up by a strong security apparatus."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2009-09-04
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Video Broadcasting from the Federal Courts: Issues for Congress [Updated October 28, 2019]
From the Document: "The issue of whether or not to allow video cameras into the courtroom has been discussed and debated by Members of Congress, the legal community, journalists, and the public since the introduction of newsreel films in the early 20th century. [...] Although the U.S. Supreme Court does not allow cameras of any sort in its chamber, a few federal circuit and district courts do allow video recording of their proceedings, and the Judicial Conference of the United States has considered expanding the use of cameras in the lower federal courts. Some judges who have experience with video cameras in their chambers support the use of video recording or broadcasting in the courts; other judges have reservations, typically related to the effects cameras might have on the proceedings. [...] In this context, some Members of Congress have introduced measures to enable, or expand, the use of video cameras in the federal courts."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Eckman, Sarah J.
2019-10-28
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Generalized System of Preferences (GSP): Overview and Issues for Congress [Updated November 7, 2019]
From the Document: "The U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program provides nonreciprocal, duty-free tariff treatment to certain products imported from designated beneficiary developing countries (BDCs). The United States, the European Union, and other developed countries have implemented similar programs since the 1970s. Congress first authorized the U.S. program in Title V of the Trade Act of 1974, and most recently extended the GSP program in Division M, Title V of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018 (P.L. 115-141). This act extended the GSP program until December 31, 2020, as well as retroactively renewing it for the time period between December 31, 2017 (the previous expiration date) and April 22, 2018. Currently, 120 developing countries and territories are GSP beneficiary developing countries (BDCs). The program provides duty-free entry into the United States for over 3,500 products (based on 8-digit U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule tariff lines) from BDCs, and duty-free status to an additional 1,500 products from 44 GSP beneficiaries additionally designated as least developed beneficiary developing countries (LDBDCs). In 2018, products valued at about $23.8 billion (imports for consumption) entered the United States duty-free under the program, out of $238.4 billion worth of total imports from GSP-eligible countries. Total U.S. imports from all countries amounted to about $2.6 trillion in 2018."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2019-11-07
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Introduction to U.S. Economy: Inflation [Updated November 7, 2019]
From the Document: "Inflation tends to interfere with pricing mechanisms in the economy, resulting in individuals and businesses making less than optimal spending, saving, and investment decisions. Additionally, in the presence of inflation, economic actors often engage in actions to protect themselves from the negative impacts of inflation, diverting resources from other more productive activities. Ultimately, these inefficient decisions reduce incomes, economic growth, and living standards. For this reason, it is generally accepted that inflation should be kept low to minimize these distortions in the economy. Some would argue that an inflation rate of zero is optimal; however a target of zero inflation makes a period of accidental deflation more likely, and deflation is thought to be even more costly than inflation. In an effort to balance these two risks, policy makers, including the Federal Reserve, often target a positive, but low, inflation rate, generally around 2%, which reduces inefficiencies within the economy while protecting against deflation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Stupak, Jeffrey M.
2019-11-07
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Introduction to U.S. Economy: Unemployment [Updated November 7, 2019]
From the Document: "The official unemployment rate released on a monthly basis by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), also known as U3, measures the number of unemployed individuals as a percentage of the entire labor force. It is important to define these terms, as the BLS definitions are not entirely intuitive. The labor force is defined as all individuals aged 16 and over who are either unemployed or employed, excluding active duty military personnel. Individuals are considered employed if they did any work for pay or profit in the previous week. Individuals are considered unemployed if they satisfy the following three criteria: (1) they do not have a job, (2) they have actively looked for work in the previous four weeks, and (3) and they are currently available to work. If an individual does not have a job, but has not looked for work in the previous four weeks, and/or is not currently available for work that individual is not considered part of the labor force."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Stupak, Jeffrey M.
2019-11-07
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FY2020 Refugee Ceiling and Allocations [November 7, 2019]
From the Document: "On November 1, 2019, President Donald Trump issued a Presidential Determination setting the FY2020 refugee ceiling at 18,000. The refugee ceiling is the maximum number of refugees that can be admitted to the United States in a fiscal year. From the start of FY2020 until the signing of the Presidential Determination, no refugees could be admitted to the United States. The FY2020 refugee ceiling of 18,000 is the lowest in the history of the U.S. refugee admissions program. The Trump Administration has reduced the refugee ceiling each year, setting it at 45,000 for FY2018 and 30,000 for FY2019. These ceilings are much lower than in previous years. Actual refugee admissions in FY2019 totaled 30,000"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2019-11-07
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Precision-Guided Munitions: Background and Issues for Congress [November 6, 2019]
From the Introduction: "This report focuses on selected precision-guided munitions (PGMs) fielded by the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. Over the years, the U.S. military has relied on PGMs to execute ground, air, and naval military operations. PGMs have become ubiquitous in U.S military operations; funding for these weapons has increased dramatically from FY1998 to the present as depicted in. In FY2020, the Department of Defense (DOD) requested approximately $5.6 billion for more than 70,000 weapons in 13 munitions programs. DOD projects requesting approximately $4.4 billion for 34,000 weapons in FY2021, $3.3 billion for 25,000 weapons in FY2022, $3.8 billion for 25,000 weapons in FY2023, and $3.4 billion for 16,000 weapons in FY2024."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hoehn, John R.
2019-11-06
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Iraq's Debt Relief: Procedure and Potential Implications for International Debt Relief [January 26, 2009]
This report discusses the implications of debt relief for Iraq. "Following the ouster of the Saddam Hussein regime in spring 2003, Iraq's external debt was estimated to be around $130 billion. Reducing this debt to a sustainable level has been a priority of the U.S. government. Since 2003, debt relief negotiations have taken place in a variety of fora and led to the cancellation of a significant amount of Iraq's external debt. Iraq's external debt comprised four components: Paris Club bilateral debt ($42.5 billion), non- Paris Club bilateral debt ($67.4 billion), commercial debt ($20 billion) and multilateral debt ($0.5 billion). Debt relief negotiations first led to an 80% reduction of the Paris Club debt. The Paris Club agreement also set the terms for non-Paris Club and commercial debt cancellation levels. A provision of the Paris Club agreement is that Iraq cannot accept a debt cancellation agreement with other creditors on more favorable terms for Iraq than those reached with the Paris Club. Thus, Iraq is expected to receive no more than an 80% cancellation from all of its creditors. Negotiations with non-Paris Club creditors are ongoing, and resolution of the commercial debt is largely complete. [...]. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2009-01-26
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Horn of Africa: The Humanitarian Crisis and International Response [September 30, 2011]
"As a result of the worst drought in 60 years, regional conflicts, and conflict within states, a humanitarian emergency of massive proportion is unfolding in the Horn of Africa region with more than 13.3 million people affected, 750,000 of whom need food assistance in the near term to avoid death. Somalia has been hardest hit so far, creating population displacement within its borders and a refugee crisis of nearly 1 million people in the region, primarily in Kenya and Ethiopia. The international community is responding, and the humanitarian needs are expected to rise in the coming months and will likely demand sustained attention well into 2012. While life-saving assistance is the current priority, long-term responses may be needed to break the disaster cycle in the Horn. Though triggered by drought, the humanitarian emergency is further complicated by political and security pressures within, between, and among the various countries in the region. This report provides an overview of the current status of the crisis, a summary of the background on the region, a framework for the international and humanitarian response, and an analysis of some of the operational challenges."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Margesson, Rhoda; Dagne, Theodore S.; Hanrahan, Charles
2011-09-30
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Rum Excise Tax Cover-Over: Legislative History and Current Issues [October 27, 2011]
"Under current law, the excise tax on rum is $13.50 per proof gallon and is collected on rum produced in or imported into the United States. Through 2011, $13.25 per proof gallon of imported rum is transferred or 'covered over' to the Treasuries of Puerto Rico (PR) and the United States Virgin Islands (USVI). In FY2009, PR received over $431.7 million in revenue and the USVI received over $115.4 million. The law does not impose any restrictions on how PR and USVI can use the transferred revenues. Both territories use some portion of the revenue to promote and assist the rum industry. The cover-over provisions for rum extend as far back as 1917 for PR and 1954 for USVI. Recently, the United States Virgin Islands has dedicated a larger share of current and future covered-over revenue to help finance public and private infrastructure that would directly benefit the rum industry. In the 112th Congress, legislation has been introduced to expand federal control over the use of covered-over revenue. Passage of H.R. 1883 (or similar legislation, S. 986) would result in limits on Puerto Rico's and the USVI's ability to use covered-over revenue to subsidize the rum industry in the islands. The legislation is likely in response to the recent economic development initiatives in the USVI financed in part by rum cover-over revenue. This report provides a history and analysis of the rum cover-over program and current legislative efforts to modify the program. The congressional debate on this legislation could also lead to debate on the broader issue of the cover-over program more generally. This report will be updated as legislative events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Maguire, Steven
2011-10-27
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Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.: Commemorative Works and Other Honors Authorized by Congress [October 13, 2011]
"Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968), the prominent African American clergyman and civil rights leader, has been honored by Congress over the years through the enactment of several pieces of legislation to provide for the commemoration of his life, works, and legacy. This report examines the life and works of Dr. King, and the various honors and memorials which Congress has authorized. In addition, Mrs. Martin Luther King Jr. (Coretta Scott King, 1927-2006) was closely involved in her husband's work. Following his assassination, she carried on his legacy. She has also been recognized and commemorated by Congress. This report provides the current status of these various projects. In 1983, Congress enacted legislation to designate the birthday of Dr. King a legal public holiday. This federal holiday has been observed every year since 1986. Since then, Congress has regularly passed resolutions recognizing Dr. King's birthday and acknowledging his contributions to the United States and the world. In 1994, Congress passed legislation to fund the King Federal Holiday Commission and to extend its operations. […] In 2004, Congress authorized the President to award a gold medal on behalf of Congress to Dr. King (posthumously) and his widow, Coretta Scott King, in recognition of their contributions to the civil rights movement. The medal has been minted. Mrs. King died on January 31, 2006. Following her death, both the Senate and House passed resolutions expressing condolences and honoring her life and work. It is expected that the medal will be ceremoniously presented to the family of Dr. and Mrs. King at some future date."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weimer, Douglas Reid
2011-10-13
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Credit for Military Service Under Civilian Federal Employee Retirement Systems [October 25, 2011]
"Federal employees with permanent appointments earn pension benefits under one of two retirement plans. Employees hired after 1983 participate in the Federal Employees' Retirement System (FERS). Employees hired before 1984 participate in the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) unless they elected to transfer to the FERS during open seasons held in 1987 and 1998. When Congress established the CSRS in 1920, it allowed veterans who subsequently became civilian federal employees to count their years of active-duty military service toward retirement eligibility and pension benefits under CSRS. The statutes that allow military service to be credited toward a civil service pension have been amended several times over the years, mainly to coordinate civil service retirement benefits with benefits earned under Social Security. Under both CSRS and FERS, federal employees who have served on active duty in the military can have their years of military service counted for retirement eligibility and pension benefits. The employee may be required to make a deposit to the Civil Service Retirement and Disability Fund (CSRDF) for military service to be credited toward a civil service retirement annuity. […] For employees enrolled in CSRS, the required deposit is 7.0% of the total amount of basic pay received while on active duty in the military. For employees enrolled in FERS, the required deposit is 3.0% of their total basic military pay. If the employee makes the deposit within two years of being hired into civilian federal employment, no interest is charged."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-
2011-10-25
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Foreign Direct Investment in the United States: An Economic Analysis [October 14, 2011]
"Foreign direct investment in the United States declined sharply after 2000, when a record $300 billion was invested in U.S. businesses and real estate. [Note: The United States defines foreign direct investment as the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one foreign person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting securities of an incorporated U.S. business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated U.S. business enterprise. 15 CFR § 806.15 (a)(1).] In 2010, according to U.S. Department of Commerce data, foreigners invested $236 billion in U.S. businesses and real estate. Foreign direct investments are highly sought after by many state and local governments that are struggling to create additional jobs in their localities. While some in Congress encourage such investment to offset the perceived negative economic effects of U.S. firms investing abroad, others are concerned about foreign acquisitions of U.S. firms that are considered essential to U.S. national and economic security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2011-10-14
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China's Currency: An Analysis of the Economic Issues [September 29, 2011]
"China's policy of intervening in currency markets to limit or halt the appreciation of its currency, the renminbi (RMB), against the U.S. dollar and other currencies has become an issue of concern for many in Congress. Critics charge that China's currency policy is intended to make its exports significantly cheaper, and its imports more expensive, than would occur if the RMB were a freely-traded currency. They contend that the RMB is significantly undervalued against the dollar and that this has been a major contributor to the large annual U.S. trade deficits with China and the loss of U.S. jobs in recent years. Several bills have been introduced the 112th Congress that seek to address the effects of undervalued currencies, including H.R. 639, S. 328, S. 1130,S. 1267, and S. 1619. On the other hand, some analysts contend that China's industrial policies, its failure to adequately protect U.S. intellectual property rights, and its unbalanced economic growth model, pose more serious challenges to U.S. economic interests than China's currency policy. […] Many economists contend that China should take steps to rebalance its economy by lessening its dependence on exports and fixed investment as the main drivers of its economic growth while boosting the level of domestic consumer demand. A market-based currency policy is seen as an important factor in achieving this goal. Further RMB appreciation could help promote the development of nonexport industries in China, while boosting China's imports, including from the United States. This report provides an economic analysis of China's currency policy and examines current legislation and options for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morrison, Wayne M.; Labonte, Marc
2011-09-29
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Regulation of Clinical Tests: In Vitro Diagnostic (IVD) Devices, Laboratory Developed Tests (LDTs), and Genetic Tests [December 17, 2014]
From the Introduction: "In vitro diagnostic (IVD) devices, including genetic tests, provide information that is used to inform health care decision making. IVDs are devices that are used in laboratory analysis of human samples and include commercial test products and instruments used in testing, among other things. IVDs may be used in a variety of settings, including a clinical laboratory, a physician's office, or in the home. […] [T]he potential for risk of harm to the patient would be from the generation of inaccurate test results that could lead to the mismanagement of a patient's disease or condition (i.e., false negative test result) or to treatment for a disease or condition that is in fact absent (false positive test result). Given this potential risk, as well as the impact on the overall delivery of health care, the federal government has taken a role in the oversight of IVDs. Federal oversight of IVDs spans several federal agencies, including the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). Oversight efforts focus on ensuring the safety and effectiveness of IVDs; the accuracy and reliability of IVDs; the quality of clinical laboratories that carry out IVD testing; the utility of the information in clinician and patient decision making; and the truthfulness of claims made about IVDs that are marketed directly to consumers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sarata, Amanda K.; Johnson, Judith A. (Judith Ann), 1957-
2014-12-17
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Fiscal Impacts of the Foreign-Born Population [October 19, 2011]
"This report reviews estimates of fiscal impacts to the federal, state, and local governments of the foreign born who reside in the United States. It examines the academic and policy literature on fiscal impacts of two populations: all U.S. foreign born and unauthorized aliens. Computing such fiscal impacts involves numerous methodological and conceptual challenges, and resulting estimates vary considerably according to the assumptions used, including those about the time frame considered, the treatment of U.S.-born children, the unit of analysis used, and which costs and revenues are included. […] Three national estimates evaluated in a 1995 General Accounting Office (GAO) report varied considerably and left the agency unable to definitively quantify such fiscal impacts. Subsequent state-level studies emphasized fiscal impacts of costly public services: public education, health care, and law enforcement. Many estimated tax and other fiscal contributions. Studies estimating fiscal impacts for unauthorized aliens are more likely to yield estimated net fiscal deficits than those estimating fiscal impacts for all foreign born, because unauthorized aliens, on average, tend to be younger and less educated. Consequently, they are more likely to use public education for their children and contribute relatively less in tax revenues compared to all foreign born. Given their unauthorized status, they are also less likely themselves to receive public benefits, although their U.S.-born children may be more likely to qualify for such benefits. However, deriving more specific conclusions or estimates from studies of unauthorized aliens reviewed in this report remains elusive due to variation in study design and methodology."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William
2011-10-19
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Defense: FY2012 Budget Request, Authorization and Appropriations [October 19, 2011]
"President Obama's FY2012 budget request, sent to Congress on February 14, 2011, included $670.9 billion in discretionary budget authority for the Department of Defense (DOD), of which $553.1 billion was for the so-called 'base budget' of the department, that is the cost of routine, peacetime operations not counting the cost of ongoing operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The remaining $117.8 billion in the DOD budget request was to cover the cost of so-called 'overseas contingency operations (OCO),' including operations in those two countries. […] The Senate Appropriations Committee reported on September 15, 2011, an amended version of H.R. 2219, the FY2012 DOD bill, which would provide $620.2 billion for DOD in FY2012, $29.39 billion less than the President requested for programs funded by this bill. Of the $29.13 billion by which the bill would reduce funding for the base budget, $9.9 billion was shifted into the part of the bill that funds OCO, where it would fund the activities for which it had been requested in the first place, principally operation and maintenance activities and a few procurement programs, notably including the purchase of three types of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Those funds shifted by the committee from the base budget into the OCO budget would offset funds the committee had cut from the OCO budget request, including $5.0 billion that was cut because of President Obama's announcement on June 22, 2011 that the number of U.S. troops in Afghanistan would be reduced by 33,000 by the end of FY2012."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Towell, Pat
2011-10-19
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Navy LPD-17 Amphibious Ship Procurement: Background, Issues, and Options for Congress [September 16, 2011]
"The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests funding for the procurement of an 11th San Antonio (LPD-17) class amphibious ship. The Navy intends this ship to be the final ship in the class. The ship has received $184.0 million in prior-year advance procurement (AP) funding, and the Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests the remaining $1,847.4 million needed to complete the ship's estimated procurement cost of $2,031.4 million. The Navy plans to begin procuring a new class of amphibious ship called the LSD(X) in FY2017. Some observers have suggested using the LPD-17 design as the basis for the LSD(X). Navy officials do not stress this option and instead appear more interested in developing an all-new design for the LSD(X). If a decision were made to use the LPD-17 design as the basis for the LSD(X), then procuring a 12th LPD-17 in FY2014 or FY2015 would help keep the LPD-17 production line open until the procurement of the first LSD(X) in FY2017, which in turn might help reduce LSD(X) production costs. Issues for Congress include whether to approve, reject, or modify the Navy's proposed funding request for the 11th LPD-17, whether to encourage or direct the Navy to use the LPD-17 design as the basis for the design of the LSD(X), and--particularly if the LPD-17 design is used as the basis for the LSD(X)--whether to fund the procurement of a 12th LPD-17 in FY2014 or FY2015."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-09-16
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Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments [Updated July 9, 2008]
"The U.N. General Assembly adopted the CTBT in 1996. As of July 9, 2008, 178 states had signed it; 144, including Russia, had ratified; and of the 44 that must ratify the treaty for it to enter into force, 41 had signed and 35 had ratified. Five conferences have been held to facilitate entry into force, most recently in 2007. In 1997, President Clinton sent the CTBT to the Senate. In October 1999, the Senate rejected it, 48 for, 51 against, 1 present. It is on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee's calendar. It would require a two-thirds Senate vote to send the treaty back to the President for disposal or to give advice and consent for ratification. The Bush Administration opposes the CTBT, adheres to the test moratorium, has not ruled out resumed testing, and has no plans to test. It has reduced the time needed to conduct a nuclear test. Critics raised concerns about the implications of these policies for testing and new weapons. At present, Congress addresses nuclear weapon issues in the annual National Defense Authorization Act and the Energy and Water Development Appropriations Act. Congress considers the Stockpile Stewardship Program (listed as Weapons Activities), which seeks to maintain nuclear weapons without testing. The FY2008 appropriation for it is $6.356 billion; the FY2009 request is $6.618 billion. Congress also considers a U.S. contribution to a global system to monitor events that might violate the CTBT. The FY2008 appropriation was $23.8 million; the FY2009 request is $9.9 million. U.S. voting rights in the CTBT Organization Preparatory Commission were suspended on January 1, 2008 for not paying enough dues. The United States paid $23.8 million on February 25, restoring its voting rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.
2008-07-09
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Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights [October 24, 2011]
"After extensive sectarian conflict during 2006-2008, Iraq's political system is characterized by peaceful political competition and formation of cross-sectarian alliances, although often involving the questionable use of key levers of power and legal institutions. This infighting is based on the belief that holding political power may mean the difference between poverty and prosperity, or even life and death, for the various political communities. The schisms delayed agreement on a new government following the March 7, 2010, national elections for the Council of Representatives (COR, parliament). With U.S. diplomatic help, on November 10, 2010, major ethnic and sectarian factions finally agreed on a framework for a new government under which Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki is serving a second term. […] Iraq also is in the process of purchasing advanced U.S. military equipment, including F-16 combat aircraft, but the Administration states that training will continue using programs similar to those with other countries with no U.S. troop presence. The Administration asserts that Iraq's governing capacity is self-sufficient and that Iraq will be able to continue to build its democracy, enact long delayed national oil laws, and undertake other measures. Some movement on the oil laws has occurred since August 2011. However, the lack of a broader and sustained focus on governance, or on improving key services, such as electricity, created popular frustration that manifested as sporadic protests since February 2011. The demonstrations were partly inspired by the wave of unrest that has broken out in many other Middle Eastern countries, but were not centered on overthrowing the regime or wholesale political change."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2011-10-24
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Navy Ohio Replacement (SSBN[X]) Ballistic Missile Submarine Program: Background and Issues for Congress [October 21, 2011]
"This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on the Navy's SSBN(X) program, a program to develop and procure 12 new ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) as replacements for the Navy's current force of 14 Ohio-class SSBNs. The SSBN(X) program is also known as the Ohio replacement program (ORP). The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests $1,067 million in research and development funding for the SSBN(X) program. Decisions that Congress makes on the SSBN(X) program could substantially affect U.S. military capabilities and funding requirements, and the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base. This report focuses on the SSBN(X) as a Navy shipbuilding program. Another CRS report discusses the SSBN(X) as an element of future U.S. strategic nuclear forces in the context of strategic nuclear arms control agreements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-10-21
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EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States [October 4, 2011]
"On October 6, 2010, the 27 member European Union (EU) and South Korea signed a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA). The South Korean National Assembly and the EU Parliament have ratified the agreement. The agreement went into effect on July 1, 2011. The South Korea-EU FTA (KOREU FTA) is the largest FTA in terms of market size that South Korea has entered into. The KOREU FTA reflects the EU and South Korean trade strategies to use FTAs to strengthen economic ties outside their home regions. It also builds upon the surge in trade and investment flows between South Korea and the EU over the past decade. This agreement has possible implications for U.S. trade with South Korea and congressional action on the proposed U.S.- South Korea FTA (KORUS FTA). President Obama submitted draft implementing legislation (H.R. 3080/S. 1642) for the KORUS FTA to Congress on October 3, 2011. […] Some business representatives argue that enactment of the KOREU FTA before enactment of the KORUS FTA would give European competitors commercial first mover advantages, since EU firms, such as those in the auto industry or the services sector, could gain greater market opportunities in South Korea not afforded to U.S. firms. On the other hand, other factors could also mitigate such advantages. For example, U.S. multinational firms operating in the EU could benefit from the KOREU FTA. Nevertheless, the content and fate of the KOREU FTA could influence the pace and tone of any debate in the United States on the KORUS FTA in the 112th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, William H., 1949-; Jurenas, Remy; Platzer, Michaela D.
2011-10-04
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European Union Enlargement: A Status Report on Turkey's Accession Negotiations [October 19, 2011]
"October 2011 marked the sixth anniversary of the European Union's decision to proceed with formal negotiations with Turkey toward full membership in the Union. It also marks the beginning of the annual period when all three European Union institutions--the Council, Commission, and Parliament--provide their assessment of the progress Turkey has made or failed to accomplish in the accession process over the previous year and issue recommendations on whether and how Turkey's accession process should proceed. On October 12, 2011, the EU Commission, the first institution to act, issued its annual assessment to the Council and Parliament. While noting the continued importance of Turkey to the EU, the Commission expressed its disappointment over the lack of any significant progress in the accession talks and pledged to intensify its work with Turkey on its domestic reforms. […] This report provides a brief overview of the EU's accession process and Turkey's path to EU membership. The U.S. Congress has had a long-standing interest in Turkey as a NATO ally; a regional energy transit hub; and a partner in issues involving the Black Sea, the broader Middle East, and the Caucasus. Although some Members have expressed support for Turkey's membership in the EU, the level of congressional support seems to have diminished as congressional concerns with several of Turkey's recent foreign policy developments have surfaced. The 112th Congress may review Turkey's relations with the United States, the impact of the EU accession process on internal political and economic reforms in Turkey, and Turkey's apparent intent to become a more independent regional foreign policy influence."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.
2011-10-19
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El Salvador: Political, Economic, and Social Conditions and U.S. Relations [October 13, 2011]
"Throughout the last few decades, the United States has maintained a strong interest in El Salvador, a small Central American country with a population of 7.2 million. During the 1980s, El Salvador was the largest recipient of U.S. aid in Latin America as its government struggled against the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) insurgency during a 12-year civil war. A peace accord negotiated in 1992 brought the war to an end and formally assimilated the FMLN into the political process as a political party. After the peace accords were signed, U.S. involvement shifted toward helping the government rebuild democracy and implement marketfriendly economic reforms. […] Maintaining close ties with the United States has been a primary foreign policy goal of successive Salvadoran governments. Although some Members of Congress expressed reservations about working with an FMLN administration, relations between El Salvador and the United States have remained friendly. During a two-day visit to El Salvador in March 2011, President Barack Obama praised President Funes' 'courageous work to overcome old divisions in Salvadoran society and to show that progress comes through pragmatism and building consensus.' Both leaders pledged to work together, in concert with the private sector, to boost economic growth in El Salvador through the new Partnerships for Growth initiative and to more effectively ensure citizen security. U.S. bilateral assistance, which totaled an estimated $29.8 million in FY2011, as well as assistance provided through the Central American Regional Security Initiative (CARSI), is supporting those bilateral goals. The Administration requested $35.5 million in aid for El Salvador for FY2012."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando
2011-10-13
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Non-Proliferation Regimes: A Comparative Analysis of Policies to Control the Spread of Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Weapons and Missiles [April 1, 1991]
The Bush Administration released a statement on March 7, 1991 declaring, "The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction may profoundly challenge our national security in the 1990s." In preparing to meet that challenge, United States non-proliferation policies have been the catalyst for global efforts to control the spread of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, and missiles. Continued U.S. leadership may serve as a model for other nations to follow and could encourage expansion of the international consensus against the various forms of proliferation.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davis, Zachary S., 1955-
1991-04-01
