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• Maritime and Port Security: A Comparison of Major Provisions of S. 1214 and H.R. 3983 [Updated November 12, 2002]

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  An interagency commission on crime and security at U.S. ports found that with a few exceptions, the level of security at U.S. ports was poor to fair. This report compares major provisions in S. 1214, which passed the Senate with an amendment, and H.R. 3983, which passed the House as amended. Five areas of the legislation are examined: federal funding, plans and programs for coordinating security, efforts to enhance foreign seaport security, cargo security provisions, and restrictions on access to certain areas within a port. As of November 12, 2002 conferees were working to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of the legislation. Although both bills cover many of the same issues, there are differences in emphasis. H.R. 3983 is most concerned with deterring and minimizing damage from a possible terrorist act. S. 1214 is concerned with deterring terrorism, but also with reducing drug smuggling, cargo theft, trade fraud, and illegal alien smuggling.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Frittelli, John

  2002-11-12
• NATO Summit at Prague, 2002 [November 12, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "Some allies are calling NATO's November 2002 Prague meeting 'the Transformation' summit due to an attempt to define part of the alliance's mission as combat against terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, matched by pledges to obtain the military capabilities to accomplish that mission. Not all allies agree on the implications of such policies. The allies will also likely name seven states as eligible for membership. This report will not be updated. See also 'NATO Enlargement', CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21055."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gallis, Paul E.

  2002-11-12
• North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program [Updated November 8, 2002]

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  "North Korea's nuclear weapons program became an immediate foreign policy issue facing the United States because of North Korea's refusal to carry out its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other nuclear accords it had signed. North Korea has constructed nuclear reactors and a plutonium reprocessing plant at a site called Yongbyon. U.S. intelligence assessments have concluded that North Korea probably has manufactured at least one nuclear weapon. The United States and North Korea signed an agreement on October 21, 1994, that offers North Korea a package of benefits in return for a freeze of North Korea's nuclear program. Benefits to North Korea include: light water nuclear reactors totaling 2,000 electric megawatts; shipments of 'heavy oil' to North Korea (50,000 tons in 1995 and 500,000 tons annually beginning in 1996 until the first light water reactor is built). The pace of implementation of the Agreed Framework has been very slow. Instead of the original target date of 2003, it generally is estimated that completion of the light water reactors will not take place until well beyond 2010. The United States has faced several policy problems since the signing of the Agreed Framework, including securing money annually to finance heavy oil shipments to North Korea (the cost of the oil has risen from about $30 million in 1995 to over $100 million), suspicions of clandestine North Korean nuclear activities, and North Korea's development of long range missiles. In October 2002, under U.S. diplomatic pressure, North Korea admitted that it was conducting a secret nuclear weapons program based on uranium enrichment. The Bush Administration demanded that North Korea end the secret program in accord with its commitments to the International Atomic Energy Agency."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Niksch, Larry A.

  2002-11-08
• Central Asia's New States: Political Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests [November 7, 2002]

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  "After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States recognized the independence of all the former Central Asian republics and established diplomatic relations with each by mid-March 1992. The United States also supported their admission to the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and other Western organizations, and elicited Turkish support in countering Iranian influence in the region. Congress was at the forefront in urging the formation of coherent U.S. policies for aiding these and other Eurasian states of the former Soviet Union, and approved the Freedom Support Act and other legislation for this purpose. After the terrorist attacks on America on September 11, 2001, all the Central Asian states offered overflight and other support to coalition anti-terrorist efforts in Afghanistan. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan have hosted coalition troops and provided access to airbases. Since then, the United States has boosted its security assistance throughout the region for anti-terrorism, counter-narcotics, non-proliferation, border and customs, and defense cooperation programs, while also increasing aid for democratization and free market reforms. U.S. policy goals in Central Asia include fostering stability, democratization, free market economies, free trade and transport throughout the Eurasian corridor, denuclearization in the non-Russian states, and adherence to international human rights standards."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2002-11-07
• Agriculture and Fast Track or Trade Promotion Authority [updated November 7, 2002]

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  "New 'fast track,' or trade promotion, authority (TPA) cleared the 107th Congress, and was signed into law (P.L. 107-210) on August 6, 2002. Such authority enables the Administration to submit negotiated foreign trade agreements to Congress for consideration under expedited procedures. Many agricultural and food industry interests were among the export-oriented enterprises that supported TPA, arguing that foreign trading partners would not seriously negotiate with an Administration that lacked it. However, some farm groups argued that fast track ultimately will lead to new agreements that have adverse effects on U.S. producers, at least of some commodities. This report will be updated if events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Becker, Geoffrey S.; Hanrahan, Charles

  2002-11-07
• Intelligence Community and 9/11: Proposals for an Independent Commission [Updated November 6, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "There is significant support for an independent commission to assess the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community in regard to the September 11, 2001 attacks, despite the fact that a joint inquiry by the Senate and House intelligence committees has been underway since early 2002. In separate legislation, the House and Senate have endorsed proposals for an independent commission. Proponents argue that an investigation by persons without ties to intelligence agencies could provide greater assurance of an impartial assessment that could lead, if necessary, to improvements in the nation's intelligence effort. Opponents argue that it would usurp the responsibilities of congressional intelligence committees, burden senior intelligence officials, and risk exposure of intelligence assets deeply involved in the current struggle against terrorism."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2002-11-06
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [November 4, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-11-04
• NATO Enlargement [Updated November 4, 2002]

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  "This report provides a brief summary of the last round of NATO enlargement, then sketches recent events culminating in preparations for the NATO summit in Prague on November 21-22, 2002. The report analyzes the key military and political issues that affect the current debate over 9 candidate states. It then provides an overview of the positions of the allies and of Russia on enlargement, citing the important potential effects of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, on the United States. It concludes with a discussion of current legislation on enlargement before Congress. This report will be updated, as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gallis, Paul E.

  2002-11-04
• Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated November 1, 2002]

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  "Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2002-11-01
• Iraq: The Turkish Factor [Updated October 31, 2002]

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  Turkey will likely be pivotal to any U.S. military operation against Iraq, but it has many concerns. Foremost, it seeks to preserve Iraq's territorial integrity and prevent the emergence of a Kurdish state in northern Iraq. It wants its linguistic/ethnic kin in that region, the Iraqi Turkomans, to be fairly represented in a future government. Turkey also is worried about the economic consequences of a war, especially since it is just recovering from a devastating recession. Finally, it is concerned about the possibilities for a humanitarian refugee crisis and regional instability. The Bush Administration is consulting closely with Turkish officials to assuage their concerns and has provided increased economic assistance while attempting to enhance trade through (free trade)qualified industrial zones in H.R. 5385. Turkey expects still greater rewards for its support. See also CRS Report RL31429, Turkey: Issues for U.S. Policy and CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: U.S. Efforts to Change the Regime. This report will be updated if developments warrant.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Migdalovitz, Carol

  2002-10-31
• Risk Assessment in the Presidents National Strategy for Homeland Security [October 31, 2005]

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  "The Presidents National Strategy for Homeland Security suggests that agencies responsible for homeland security may use risk assessment techniques as tools to accomplish their missions. Agencies may perform risk assessments on a national scale in some areas, such as critical infrastructure. National homeland security risk assessments may be beneficial, or even essential, but a number of limitations could reduce or eliminate their usefulness. In addition, awareness of risk assessments basic methods and potential shortcomings can help Congress to effectively oversee agencies responsible for homeland security. This report is intended to provide background on the use of risk assessment in the homeland security context and will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Buschmann, Rob

  2002-10-31
• Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 107th Congress [Updated October 30, 2002]

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  "Top immigration issues before the 107th Congress include the reorganization of the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), a part of the Department of Justice (DOJ); admissions policy; and the eligibility of non-citizens for public assistance. Also pending are measures to enable unauthorized aliens to become legal permanent residents (LPRs) and to reform temporary guest worker programs. Amendments proposed in the Senate would create a directorate of immigration affairs within the new department with responsibility for immigration service and enforcement functions. The Administration has proposed transferring all of INS to a new homeland security department under a border and transportation security division. Admissions policy, particularly responsibility for issuing visas, is a key issue in discussions about establishing a homeland security department. Congress is addressing non-citizen eligibility for public assistance in the context of bills to reauthorize federal public benefit programs. The 'farm bill' (P.L. 107-171) expands eligibility for food stamps for certain classes of LPRs. H.R. 4737 would reauthorize Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. This legislation would extend a provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act- §245(i)- that currently covers illegal aliens whose sponsors filed petitions or applications on their behalf by April 30, 2001. H.R. 1885 has been passed in different forms by the House and Senate. Other pending bills would establish mechanisms to allow particular groups of unauthorized aliens- such as agricultural workers and students- to become LPRs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Siskin, Alison; Ester, Karma . . .

  2002-10-30
• Palestinians and Middle East Peace: Issues for the United States [Updated October 24, 2002]

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  "The United States began contacts with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in December 1988, after the PLO accepted Israel's right to exist, accepted U.N. Resolutions 242 and 338 that call for an exchange of land for peace, and renounced terrorism. The United States continues its contacts with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority elected in January 1996, and is an active broker in the continuing Middle East peace process. […] On May 4, 1994, Israel and the PLO signed an agreement providing for the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho (withdrawal completed May 11, 1994). The Interim Agreement signed on September 28, 1995 (also called Oslo II or the Taba Agreement), provided for elections for the 88-seat Palestinian Assembly, the release of Israeli-held prisoners, Israeli withdrawal from six West Bank cities, and other issues. The Israelis withdrew from the West Bank cities by the end of 1995, and the Palestinian Assembly was elected on January 20, 1996, and sworn in on March 7, 1996. Israel and the Palestinians agreed to an Israeli withdrawal from Hebron in January 1997, and on October 23, 1998 signed the Wye agreement to meet previous commitments. The peace talks stalled at Camp David in July 2000, and remain suspended since the Palestinian uprising began in September. Some 1,493 Palestinians and 585 Israelis have died in the continuing confrontation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-10-24
• Egypt-United States Relations [October 24, 2002]

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  "U.S.-Egyptian relations are tied to maintaining regional stability, improving bilateral relations focused on Egyptian economic development and military cooperation, developing Egypt's democracy, sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and continuing U.S. foreign assistance to Egypt. Experience gained from Egyptian-U.S. joint military exercises proved valuable in easing coordination during the February 1991 Desert Storm operation reversing Iraqi aggression against Kuwait. Egypt is a leader and moderating influence among many Arab, African, Islamic, and Third World states. Among the current issues in U.S.-Egyptian relations are the shared concerns over the terrorist attacks against Egyptian police, religious, government, and tourist facilities, and what those attacks may signal for Egypt's domestic stability. The two nations may disagree over Egypt's interpretation of applying human rights practices to Islamic terrorists. The two countries disagree over the speed and depth, but not the need for some of Egypt's economic reforms. Egypt and the United States agree on the importance of the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, the need to continue current Arab-Israel peace talks, and the need for regional stability. The two nations agree on Egypt's determination to introduce democratic reforms to Egypt. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of over $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. The United States will reduce Economic Support Funds (ESF) to about $400 million per year by 2008 in keeping with a plan to reduce aid to Israel. The Administration requested $655 million in economic grants and $1.3 billion in military grants for FY2002 for Egypt."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-10-24
• Afghanistan: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated October 24, 2002]

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  "As the war against remaining Al Qaeda and Taliban elements winds down, the United States is shifting its military focus toward stabilizing the interim government, including training a new Afghan national army, and supporting the international security force (ISAF) that is helping the new government provide security. The United States has reopened its embassy in Kabul and allowed the Afghan administration to reopen Afghanistan's embassy in Washington. To help foster development, the United Nations and the Bush Administration are in the process of lifting U.N. and international sanctions imposed on Afghanistan since the Soviet occupation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2002-10-24
• Africa: U.S. Foreign Assistance Issues [Updated October 24, 2002]

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  "The Bush Administration is requesting just over $1 billion in Development Assistance (DA) for sub-Saharan Africa in FY2003, as compared with an estimated $887 million going to the region in FY2002. The request for aid through the Economic Support Fund (ESF), however, has dropped to $77 million from estimated ESF assistance of $100 million in FY2002. […] In an October 18, 2002 report on the food security crisis in southern Africa, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) reported that the United States has responded to date by providing $276 million in emergency humanitarian assistance, primarily food aid. […] The Foreign Operations Appropriations bill, a major vehicle for assistance to Africa, was reported to the House as H.R. 5410 on September 19. On August 29, the U.S. Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs, Paula Dobriansky, announced new aid initiatives, or 'signature partnerships,' intended to expand access to clean water and sanitation, promote clean energy use, cut hunger in Africa, and promote development and conservation in the Congo River basin. Dobriansky was speaking at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2002-10-24
• Middle East Peace Talks [Updated October 22, 2002]

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  "Since the founding of Israel, Arab-Israeli conflict marked every decade until the 1990s. With each clash, issues separating the parties multiplied and became more intractable. The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 provided a home for the Jewish people, but the ensuing conflict made refugees of thousands of Arab residents of the formerly British Palestine, with consequences troubling for Arabs and Israelis alike. The 1967 war ended with Israel occupying territory of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Egypt and Syria fought the 1973 war, in part, to regain their lands. In 1982, Israel invaded southern Lebanon to prevent terrorist incursions; it withdrew in 1985, retaining control of a 9-mile 'security zone' over which Lebanon seeks to reclaim. Middle East peace has been a U.S. and international diplomatic goal throughout the years of conflict. The 1978 Camp David talks, the only previous direct Arab-Israeli negotiations, brought about the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Migdalovitz, Carol

  2002-10-22
• Nuclear Smuggling and International Terrorism: Issues and Options for U.S. Policy [Updated October 22, 2002]

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  "The collapse of the USSR and its framework of totalitarian control raised fears of rampant nuclear proliferation, fueled by leakages of fissile materials from increasingly insecure Russian stockpiles. A major U.S. concern is that such materials and even complete nuclear weapons could gravitate into dangerous hands, increasing the array of potentially lethal dangers to Western security and stability. The dimensions of this threat have not been precisely calibrated...Indeed, terrorists and rogues may place a higher priority on other weapons of mass destruction (WMD) objectives or, in the case of states, on domestic manufacture of nuclear bomb ingredients. Nevertheless, the possibility can be considered that the observed market in the West does not reflect the true state of affairs, because many smuggling incidents might go undetected or unreported...The United States is funding a broad range of activities in Russia and other newly independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union designed to stem outflows of nuclear material, weapons and weapons design intelligence. Such programs have been controversial: some believe that they have been under-funded and advocate major expansion, while others see the programs as intrinsically unworkable in the Russian context or - put bluntly, that "nothing much can be done." Pervasive crime and corruption and Russia's nuclear cooperation with Iran (which seemingly contradicts the goal of non-proliferation) are cited to support the latter position. Recent congressional budget decisions and bipartisan legislation currently before Congress, indicate a desire that investment in proliferation prevention in the NIS should be increased significantly." - From Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-10-22
• Mexican Drug Certification Issues: U.S. Congressional Action, 1986-2002 [Updated October 22, 2002]

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  "This report summarizes U.S. congressional action relating to Mexican drug control and drug certification issues from 1986 to 2002, with emphasis on recent actions. It explains the development and the procedures of the drug certification requirements in the mid-1980s and the steps taken in the initial years following enactment of the bill. It provides detailed information about congressional action in the more recent years, from 1996 to 2002, including the temporary modification of the requirements in 2001 and the permanent modification of the procedures in 2002."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-

  2002-10-22
• North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program [Updated October 21, 2002]

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  "North Korea's nuclear weapons program became an immediate foreign policy issue facing the United States because of North Korea's refusal to carry out its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other nuclear accords it had signed. North Korea has constructed nuclear reactors and a plutonium reprocessing plant at a site called Yongbyon. U.S. intelligence assessments have concluded that North Korea probably has manufactured at least one nuclear weapon. The United States and North Korea signed an agreement on October 21, 1994, that offers North Korea a package of benefits in return for a freeze of North Korea's nuclear program. Benefits to North Korea include: light water nuclear reactors totaling 2,000 electric megawatts; shipments of 'heavy oil' to North Korea (50,000 tons in 1995 and 500,000 tons annually beginning in 1996 until the first light water reactor is built). The pace of implementation of the Agreed Framework has been very slow. Instead of the original target date of 2003, it generally is estimated that completion of the light water reactors will not take place until well beyond 2010. The United States has faced several policy problems since the signing of the Agreed Framework, including securing money annually to finance heavy oil shipments to North Korea (the cost of the oil has risen from about $30 million in 1995 to over $100 million), suspicions of clandestine North Korean nuclear activities, and North Korea's development of long range missiles. In October 2002, under U.S. diplomatic pressure, North Korea admitted that it was conducting a secret nuclear weapons program based on uranium enrichment."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Niksch, Larry A.

  2002-10-21
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [October 18, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-10-18
• Recycling Computers and Electronic Equipment: Legislative and Regulatory Approaches for 'E-Waste' [October 18, 2002]

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  "Rapid growth in the use of computers and the incorporation of electronic features in a wide array of consumer products have been among the most important driving forces of the nation's economy during the last decade; but they also pose major potential environmental problems. In addition to producing better products, the improvements in technology have created growing volumes of obsolete products to be managed as waste...Management of these products as waste is of concern in part because of their volume, but more importantly because they contain large amounts of heavy metals and other toxic substances...As a result, many argue that electronic equipment should be managed separately from the municipal waste stream, and recycled whenever possible. The United States has done little to address this problem. Unless disposed in large quantities, used computers and other electronic products are allowed to be managed as municipal solid waste (i.e., the same as ordinary household trash) in most states. In some locations, used computers have been collected for recycling on special voluntary collection days, but few jurisdictions offer frequent, comprehensive recycling opportunities for electronic waste...Numerous interested parties, including environmental groups, solid waste management officials, electronics manufacturers, and retailers, have begun to develop alternative approaches on a voluntary basis...This report provides background on the management of discarded computers, discusses some of the initiatives undertaken in the United States and abroad, and identifies options that Congress might consider if it were to address this issue. As of mid-October, only one bill, H.R. 5158, has been introduced on this topic." - Excerpts from Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.

  2002-10-18
• Nuclear Nonproliferation Issues [Updated October 17, 2002]

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  "The United States has been a leader of worldwide efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. To this end, the international community and many individual states have agreed to a range of treaties, laws, and agreements, known collectively as the nuclear nonproliferation regime, aimed at keeping nations that do not have nuclear weapons from acquiring them. The nonproliferation regime has also been concerned with preventing terrorists from obtaining a nuclear weapon or the materials to craft one. The attacks on New York and Washington September 11 added a new level of reality to the threat that terrorists might acquire a nuclear weapon and explode it in a populated area. Other nonproliferation concerns include a number of regional crisis points: the India- Pakistan arms race, North Korea, and the Middle East, primarily Iraq, Iran, and Israel. There is concern about China's actions in expanding its nuclear force, and of Chinese and Russian activities that may encourage proliferation in the other regions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2002-10-17
• European Counterterrorist Efforts since September 11: Political Will and Diverse Responses [October 17, 2002]

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  The attacks of September 11 prompted the Bush Administration to improve law enforcement and other coordination between the United States and European governments dealing with international terrorism. European governments have also taken measures to enhance cooperation among themselves. Most notable are European Union efforts to enhance cross-border sharing of intelligence and police information, extend the reach of warrants, and strengthen external border controls. Some European countries have a long history of fighting terrorism, and have refined existing practices as part of their counter terror policy. Others with little experience in combating terrorism are developing measures for the first time. Efforts to fight terror include the disruption of terrorists' financial networks, the emerging EU regime for tracking asylum seekers, and arrest and trial of suspected terrorists. However, some governments have been slow to accept the U.S. position that Al Qaeda poses a significant new threat, and are correspondingly reluctant to approve enhanced law enforcement measures, or are inattentive to their implementation. These governments may believe that the United States is under a new threat, but that the danger docs not extend to their own societies, or that a more active role in the fight would increase the likelihood that they would be targeted. Some governments also have different evidentiary standards from their neighbors and the United States; these governments may set the evidentiary bar very high before undertaking an investigation or making an arrest. Furthermore, there are concerns in Europe that the United States is using the war against terrorism to pursue broader and more controversial foreign policy goals.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gallis, Paul E.

  2002-10-17
• Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Free Trade, and the 2002 Summit in Mexico [October 17, 2002]

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  "On October 26-27, 2002, the Tenth APEC [Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation] Leaders' Meeting (summit) is to be hosted by Mexico in Las Cabos, Mexico. It is to be preceded by meetings of the senior officials from member nations, the APEC Business Advisory Council, and a CEO summit of business leaders. The APEC summit is usually attended by the President, Secretary of State, U.S. Trade Representative, and Commerce Secretary. The official theme for APEC 2002 is to expand the benefits of cooperation for economic growth and development and enable the APEC vision to be implemented. APEC 2002 is intended to send a clear message to the world that APEC has the ability to implement its initiatives while responding and adapting to changes in the global and regional economies. The United States has been pushing for APEC to adopt an action plan to increase the effectiveness of a freeze on terrorist-related assets. […] APEC is an association of 21 economies bordering the Pacific Ocean who are working cooperatively to reduce barriers to trade and investment; ease the exchange of goods, services, resources, and technical know-how; and strengthen economic and technical cooperation. The members include the United States, Canada, Mexico, Chile, Peru, Japan, South Korea, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, Vietnam, Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Russia. In the 1994 Bogor Declaration, the leaders of APEC declared their intention to establish free trade and investment in the region by the year 2010 for industrialized members and 2020 for the others. This goal has been reaffirmed at the Leader's Meeting each subsequent year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki

  2002-10-17
• Israeli-United States Relations [October 17, 2002]

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  "Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-10-17
• Iran: Current Developments and U.S. Policy [October 16, 2002]

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  "Even before Iran's tacit cooperation with post-September 11 U.S. efforts to defeat Afghanistan's Taliban regime, signs of moderation in Iran had stimulated the United States to try to engage Iran in official talks. Iran, still split between conservatives and reformers loyal to President Mohammad Khatemi did not accept. Recent reports of Iran's harboring of Al Qaeda fighters and the intercepted January 2002 shipment of Iranian arms allegedly to the Palestinian Authority have reversed the warming trend. Iran was grouped with North Korea and Iraq as part of the 'axis of evil' identified in President Bush's January 29, 2002 State of the Union message. The United States said subsequently it supports reform-minded Iranians who want democracy, an apparent shift from the stance of attempting to engage Khatemi's government. President Bush has identified Iran's efforts to acquire weapons of mass destruction and delivery means, coupled with its support of terrorist groups, as key U.S. concerns. Iran's ballistic missile program has made major strides over the past few years, with the help of several foreign suppliers, and the strides in its civilian nuclear power program could further a nuclear weapons effort."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2002-10-16
• Iraq: Former and Recent Military Confrontations with the United States [Updated October 16, 2002]

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  "Efforts by Iraq to impede U.N. weapons inspections since late 1997 and to challenge the allied-imposed no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq have resulted in further confrontations with the United States and its allies. A decision by Iraq to ban almost all U.N. inspections on October 31, 1998, led the United States and Britain to conduct a 4-day air operation against Iraq on December 16-20, 1998 (Operation Desert Fox). The two allies launched approximately 415 missiles and dropped more than 600 bombs targeted at Iraqi military and logistical facilities. Since the December 1998 operation, the United States and Britain have carried out air strikes against Iraqi air defense units and installations on a frequent basis, in response to Iraqi attempts to target allied aircraft enforcing no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq. On October 7, 2001, following the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations warned Iraq not to move against Iraqi opposition groups or attack its neighbors while the United States was involved in its campaign against terrorism."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2002-10-16
• Iraq: Differing Views in the Domestic Policy Debate [October 16, 2002]

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  "This report identifies selected statements by Bush Administration officials, former U.S. government officials, columnists, and academic and think-tank policy analysts who have addressed the issue of intervention in Iraq and summarizes some of their main arguments... The debate over whether, when, and how to prosecute a major U.S. military intervention in Iraq and depose Saddam Hussein is complex, despite a general consensus in Washington that the world would be much better off if Hussein were not in power...A number of key questions are raised in this debate, such as: 1) is war on Iraq linked to the war on terrorism and to the Arab-Israeli dispute; 2) what effect will a war against Iraq have on the war against terrorism; 3) are there unintended consequences of warfare, especially in this region of the world; 4) what is the long term political and financial commitment likely to accompany regime change and possible democratization in this highly divided, ethnically diverse country; 5) what are the international consequences (e.g., to European allies, Russia, and the world community) of any U.S. strategy that emphasizes unilateralism or multilateralism; 6) to what degree is U.N. or congressional support required or even needed; and 7) what are the ramifications of not taking action to ensure that Iraq is not acquiring weapons of mass destruction? On October 10th, after a month of debate, the House passed a joint resolution (H.J. Res 114) that authorizes the use of force against Iraq and requires the Bush Administration to report to Congress that diplomatic options have been exhausted before or within 48 hours after military action has begun." - from Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hildreth, Steven A.; Bockman, Johanna; Marshall, Meaghan

  2002-10-16
• Intelligence Issues for Congress [Updated October 11, 2002]

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  "The U.S. Intelligence Community continues to adjust to the post-Cold War environment. Congressional and executive branch initiatives have emphasized enhancing cooperation among the different agencies that comprise the Community by giving greater managerial authority to the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). Priority continues to be placed on intelligence support to military operations and on involvement in efforts to combat narcotics trafficking and, especially since September 11, 2001, international terrorism. Growing concerns about transnational threats are leading to increasingly close cooperation between intelligence and law enforcement agencies. This relationship is complicated, however, by differing roles and missions as well as statutory charters."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2002-10-11