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Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive [October 13, 2011]
"Attempts to resolve the Cyprus problem and reunify the island have undergone various levels of negotiation for over 45 years. Throughout 2011, Cyprus President Demetris Christofias and Turkish Cypriot leader Dervis Eroglu have continued the negotiation process but have thus far failed to reach a mutually agreed settlement. This stalemate has resulted in a solution for unification still far from being achieved and, coupled with other events, has raised the unfortunate specter of a possible permanent separation. Although both sides have intimated that some convergence of views has been reached in the areas of governance, economy, and EU issues, Christofias and Eroglu have not found common ground on the difficult issues of property rights, security, settlers, and citizenship, areas where both sides have long-held and very different positions and where neither side seems willing or able to make necessary concessions. […] The United States Congress continues to maintain its interest in a resolution of the Cyprus issue. Language expressing continued support for the negotiation process has been included in the House FY2012 Foreign Assistance Authorization bill. The Chairman of the House Europe Subcommittee also led a delegation to Cyprus during a Fall recess to assess the peace process. This report provides a brief overview of the early history of the negotiations, a more detailed review of the negotiations since 2008, and a description of some of the issues involved in the talks."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.
2011-10-13
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Numerical Limits on Employment-Based Immigration: Analysis of the Per-Country Ceilings [October 11, 2011]
"The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) specifies a complex set of numerical limits and preference categories that include economic priorities among the criteria for admission. The INA allocates 140,000 visas annually for employment-based legal permanent residents (LPRs), and they were 14.2% of the total 1.0 million LPRs in FY2010. The INA further specifies that each year, countries are held to a numerical limit of 7% of the worldwide level of U.S. immigrant admissions, known as per-country limits or country caps. Even as U.S. unemployment levels remain high, some employers assert that they continue to need the 'best and the brightest' workers, regardless of their country of birth, to remain competitive in a worldwide market and to keep their firms in the United States. While support for the option of increasing employment-based immigration may be dampened by economic conditions, proponents argue it is an essential ingredient for economic growth. Those opposing increases in employment-based LPRs assert that there is no compelling evidence of labor shortages and cite the rate of unemployment across various occupations and labor markets. […] Those with approved pending cases from China seem to be more evenly split among new arrivals and those seeking to adjust status. Some argue that the per-country ceilings are arbitrary and observe that employability has nothing to do with country of birth. Others maintain that the statutory per-country ceilings restrain the dominance of high-demand countries and preserve the diversity of the immigrant flows. Legislation to revise the per-country ceilings on LPRs has been introduced in the House (H.R. 3012)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2011-10-11
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Democratic Republic of the Congo: Peace Process and Current Developments [October 17, 2011]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia used eastern Congo as a safe haven and carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. […] The DRC [Democratic Republic of Congo] received a total of $296.5 million in FY2009, $282.6 million in FY2010, and $215.9 million in FY2011. The Obama Administration has requested $230.8 million for FY2012. In late July 2010, President Obama signed into law the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (P.L. 111-203). The 2,300-page legislation contains an amendment on Congo Conflict Minerals. The law requires that American companies disclose what kind of measures they have taken to ensure that minerals imported from Congo do not contain 'conflict minerals.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-10-17
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Veterans' Benefits: Burial Benefits and National Cemeteries [October 12, 2011]
"Burial benefits are monetary and nonmonetary benefits that eligible veterans receive for their military service. Nonmonetary burial benefits have been provided to servicemembers and veterans since the Civil War. Monetary burial benefits have been provided to servicemembers and veterans since World War I. Eligible veterans and active duty members of the Armed Forces can be interred in national cemeteries and can receive government-furnished headstones or markers, presidential memorial certificates, and burial flags. Their spouses or surviving spouses, minor children, and, under certain conditions, unmarried adult children may also be buried in national cemeteries. […] The development of national cemeteries began as a result of the increasing number of Civil War casualties. The National Cemetery Act of 1867 was the first major piece of legislation to provide funds for, and directives about, national cemeteries. Today, there are 131 national cemeteries, along with 33 soldier's lots and monument sites, under the jurisdiction of the VA [Veterans Affairs]. This report provides a descriptive analysis of both nonmonetary and monetary burial benefits and national cemeteries. It addresses congressional and constituent issues, such as who is eligible to receive burial benefits; who can be buried in a national cemetery; what plans does the VA have to build new or expand existing national cemeteries; and what benefits does the VA provide, among others. These issues may be of particular interest to Congress due to the aging of the veteran population, the changes to eligibility requirements, and recent VA report findings and recommendations related to the establishment of national cemeteries."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Scott, Christine A.
2011-10-12
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China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities - Background and Issues for Congress [November 1, 2011]
"The question of how the United States should respond to China's military modernization effort, including its naval modernization effort, has emerged as a key issue in U.S. defense planning. Admiral Michael Mullen, the then-Chairman of the Joints Chiefs of Staff, stated in June 2010 that 'I have moved from being curious to being genuinely concerned' about China's military programs. The question of how the United States should respond to China's military modernization effort is of particular importance to the U.S. Navy, because many U.S. military programs for countering improved Chinese military forces would fall within the Navy's budget. Decisions that Congress and the executive branch make regarding U.S. Navy programs for countering improved Chinese maritime military capabilities could affect the likelihood or possible outcome of a potential U.S.-Chinese military conflict in the Pacific over Taiwan or some other issue. Some observers consider such a conflict to be very unlikely, in part because of significant U.S.-Chinese economic linkages and the tremendous damage that such a conflict could cause on both sides. […] Potential oversight issues for Congress include the following: whether, in the context of anticipated reductions in planned levels of defense spending, the U.S. Navy in coming years will be large enough to adequately counter improved Chinese maritime anti-access forces while also adequately performing other missions of interest to U.S. policymakers around the world; the Navy's ability to counter Chinese ASBMs [anti-ship ballistic missiles] and submarines; and whether the Navy, in response to China's maritime anti-access capabilities, should shift over time to a more distributed fleet architecture."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-11-01
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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security [Updated July 21, 2008]
This CRS report provides the most recent update on the situation of "Governance and Security in Post-Saddam Iraq." First of all, the report reviews the U.S. policy towards Iraq during the Clinton Administration followed by the "post-September 11, 2001" policy of the Bush Administration which advocated "a regime change policy toward Iraq." Secondly, the report focuses on the issue of "post-Saddam Transition and Governance," and discusses the formation of the new democratic government. The report also provides an update on the "security challenges and responses" which are prevalent throughout Iraq. Finally, the report also provides the results of the Iraq Study Group, as well as other options which the U.S. can take into consideration, such as "further troop increase, immediate and complete troop withdrawal" and setting a timetable for withdrawal etc. A major recommendation proposed by the Iraq Study Group is to have "increased regional, multi-lateral, and international diplomacy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2008-07-21
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Enemy Combatant Detainees: Habeas Corpus Challenges in Federal Court [Updated July 29, 2008]
This CRS report provides an update on the recent federal court cases in which enemy combatants held at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, have "the constitution privilege of habeas corpus." More specifically, "this report provides an overview of the CSRT [Combatant Status Review Tribunals] procedures, summarizes court cases related to the detentions and the use of military commissions, and summarizes the Detainee Treatment Act [DTA], as amended by the Military Commissions Act of 2006, analyzing its effects on detainee-related litigation in federal court. The report summarizes pending legislation and provides an analysis of relevant constitutional issues that may have some bearing on Congress's options with respect to the Guantanamo detainees. [...] The Administration's policy of detaining wartime captives and suspected terrorists at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Station has raised a host of novel legal questions regarding, among other matters, the relative powers of the President and Congress to fight terrorism, as well as the power of the courts to review the actions of the political branches. The DTA was Congress's first effort to impose limits on the President's conduct of the Global War on Terrorism and to prescribe a limited role for the courts. The Supreme Court's decision striking the DTA provision that attempted to eliminate the courts' habeas jurisdiction may be seen as an indication that the Court will continue to play a role in determining the ultimate fate of the detainees at Guantanamo. However, the Court did not foreclose all options available to Congress to streamline habeas proceedings involving detainees at Guantanamo or elsewhere in connection with terrorism. Instead, it indicated that the permissibility of such measures will be weighed in the context of relevant circumstances and exigencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer; Thomas, Kenneth R.; Garcia, Michael John
2008-07-29
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Navy LPD-17 Amphibious Ship Procurement: Background, Issues, and Options for Congress [October 18, 2011]
"This report provides background information and issues for Congress on the San Antonio (LPD- 17) class amphibious ship program. The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests funding for the procurement of an 11th San Antonio (LPD-17) class amphibious ship. The Navy intends this ship to be the final ship in the class. Issues for Congress include whether to approve, reject, or modify the Navy's proposed funding request for the 11th LPD-17, whether to encourage or direct the Navy to use the LPD-17 design as the basis for the design of the LSD(X) class of amphibious ships that the Navy wants to begin procuring in FY2017, and--particularly if the LPD-17 design is used as the basis for the LSD(X)--whether to fund the procurement of a 12th LPD-17 in FY2014 or FY2015. Congress's decisions on these issues will affect, among other things, Navy and Marine Corps funding requirements and capabilities, and the shipbuilding industrial base."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-10-18
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Navy Nuclear Aircraft Carrier (CVN) Homeporting at Mayport: Background and Issues for Congress [November 7, 2011]
"The Navy's five Atlantic Fleet nuclear powered aircraft carriers (CVNs) are all homeported at Norfolk, VA. The Navy wants to establish a second Atlantic Fleet CVN home port by homeporting a CVN at Mayport, FL. Navy plans call for having Mayport ready to homeport a CVN in 2019. Transferring a CVN from Norfolk to Mayport would shift from Norfolk to Mayport the local economic activity associated with homeporting a CVN, which some sources estimate as being worth hundreds of millions of dollars per year. The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests $14.998 million in military construction (MilCon) funding for the Massey Avenue Corridor Improvements project, a roadway construction project that is part of the Navy's plan for establishing a CVN home port at Mayport. In addition, the Navy states that of the $84.36 million in funding requested by the Navy for FY2012 for MilCon planning and design activities, about $2 million is requested for the project to establish a CVN home port at Mayport. […] In October 21, 2011, letters to three Members of Congress from Florida, and in letters of the same date to six Members of Congress from Virginia, Admiral Jonathan Greenert, the Chief of Naval Operations, commented on the issue of homeporting a CVN at Mayport in the context of the ongoing Department of Defense strategic and budget reviews."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-11-07
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U.S. Postal Service and Six-Day Delivery: Issues for Congress [November 1, 2011]
"After running profits from FY2004 through FY2006, the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) lost $20.4 billion from FY2007 through FY2010. At the conclusion of the third quarter of FY2011, USPS had $901 million in cash--a low level for an agency with an average weekly operating expense of more than $1.4 billion. USPS leaders, Congress, and the public have suggested methods that may increase revenue or reduce expenses. Among these suggestions is reducing the number of days per week that USPS delivers mail. On March 30, 2010, USPS made its first formal step toward a move to five-day delivery when it asked the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC), an oversight body, for an advisory opinion on the elimination of Saturday delivery. Some lawmakers have criticized the elimination of a delivery day, stating that reducing service days could cause even greater reductions in mail volume and lead to a 'death spiral' for USPS. […] S. 1010, introduced by Senator Thomas R. Carper, would give USPS the authority to determine the number of days it delivered mail. H.Res. 137, on the other hand, would express the sense of the House of Representatives that USPS should maintain six-day delivery. In 'The President's Plan for Economic Growth and Deficit Reduction', released in September 2011, the Office of Management and Budget supported authorizing USPS to eliminate a delivery day. The 112th Congress may consider the elimination of a mail delivery day as part of a larger debate over the future of USPS. This report will examine the history of six-day mail delivery, compare delivery options in other countries, and analyze potential effects of reducing USPS delivery from six to five days. It will then examine some potential policy options for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ginsberg, Wendy R.
2011-11-01
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Sustainable Budget Deficit: Overview of Major Expiring Policies in 2011 and 2012 and Their Budgetary Impact [December 16, 2011]
"The federal government runs a deficit when spending (mandatory, discretionary, and interest payments on the debt) is greater than revenues (taxes and fees). Between 2009 and 2011, deficits relative to the size of the economy (i.e., as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP)) have been at their highest levels in the post-World War II era. In 2011, the federal deficit was 8.5% of GDP, while from 1946 to 2008, the budget deficit averaged 1.7% of GDP. Many experts believe that deficits must be reduced to 'sustainable' levels in order to avoid a budgetary crisis. Large budget deficits can result in a budgetary crisis for two principal reasons. First, as deficits persist, government incurs debt and as a nation's debt grows, so too would interest payments on that debt, limiting spending on other parts of the budget. Second, increasing deficits and debt could also trigger fear among creditors about a government's ability to repay its debts, resulting in an unwillingness by creditors to lend at affordable rates. […] This report compares the budgetary implication of allowing all the policies to expire versus extending all of them in order to show their impact on the medium-term deficit. In the past, when these policies have been extended, they have generally not been offset. This report assumes that future extensions would also not be offset. This report first examines six major policies that are scheduled to expire in 2011 and 2012 and the deficit implications of their extension. Then the report provides data on the annual and aggregate budget implications of extending these major policies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Crandall-Hollick, Margot L.
2011-12-16
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India: Domestic Issues, Strategic Dynamics, and U.S. Relations [September 1, 2011]
"South Asia emerged in the 21st century as increasingly vital to core U.S. foreign policy interests. India, the region's dominant actor with more than 1 billion citizens, is often characterized as a nascent great power and 'indispensable partner' of the United States, one that many analysts view as a potential counterweight to China's growing clout. Since 2004, Washington and New Delhi have been pursuing a 'strategic partnership' based on shared values and apparently convergent geopolitical interests. Numerous economic, security, and global initiatives, including plans for civilian nuclear cooperation, are underway. This latter initiative--first launched in 2005 and codified in U.S. law in 2008--reversed three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy, but has not been implemented to date. Also in 2005, the United States and India signed a ten-year defense framework agreement to expanding bilateral security cooperation. The two countries now engage in numerous and unprecedented combined military exercises, and major U.S. arms sales to India are underway. […] Its left-leaning Congress Party-led ruling national coalition has been in power for more than seven years under the leadership of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, an Oxford-trained economist. New Delhi's engagement with regional and other states is extensive and reflects its rising geopolitical status. The national economy has been growing rapidly-- India's is projected to be the world's third-largest economy in the foreseeable future--yet poor infrastructure, booming energy demand, and restrictive trade and investment practices are seen to hamper full economic potential. Despite the growth of a large urban middle-class, India's remains a largely rural and agriculture-based society, and is home to some 500-600 million people living in poverty. This report will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan; Kerr, Paul K.; Martin, Michael F.
2011-09-01
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Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 115th Congress [May 26, 2017]
From the Summary: "Cuba remains a one-party authoritarian state with a poor record on human rights. Current President Raúl Castro succeeded his long-ruling brother Fidel Castro in 2006, and the succession was characterized by a remarkable degree of stability. Raúl began his second and final five-year term as president in 2013, which is scheduled to end in February 2018, when he would be 86 years of age. Most observers see First Vice President Miguel Diaz-Canel as the "heir apparent" as president, although Raúl likely will continue in his position as first secretary of Cuba's Communist Party (PCC). Under Raúl, Cuba has implemented gradual market-oriented economic policy changes over the past decade, but critics maintain that the government has not taken enough action to foster sustainable economic growth. Few observers expect the government to ease its tight control over the political system, especially as the country approaches its political succession in 2018. Short-term detentions and harassment against democracy and human rights activists have increased over the past several years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2017-05-26
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Coast Guard Cutter Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress [July 31, 2012]
"This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on the Coast Guard's programs for procuring eight National Security Cutters (NSCs), 25 Offshore Patrol Cutters (OPCs), and 58 Fast Response Cutters (FRCs). These 91 planned cutters are intended as replacements for 90 aging Coast Guard cutters and patrol craft. The Coast Guard began procuring NSCs and FRCs a few years ago, and the first few NSCs and FRCs are now in service. The Coast Guard plans to begin procuring OPCs within the next few years. The NSC, OPC, and FRC programs have a combined estimated acquisition cost of about $16.8 billion, and the Coast Guard's proposed FY2013 budget requests a total of $852 million in acquisition funding for the three programs. The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Coast Guard's funding requests and acquisition strategies for the NSC, OPC, and FRC programs. Congress's decisions on these three programs could substantially affect Coast Guard capabilities and funding requirements, and the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base. The NSC, OPC, and FRC programs have been subjects of congressional oversight for several years, and were previously covered in an earlier CRS [Congressional Research Service] report that is now archived. The Coast Guard's plans for modernizing its fleet of polar icebreakers are covered in a separate CRS report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2012-07-31
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OSH Act: A Legal Overview [October 28, 2014]
From the Summary: "Through the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 ('OSH Act' or 'act'), Congress sought a nationwide approach to regulating workplace accidents and injuries. The act authorizes the Secretary of Labor to create and enforce workplace safety standards. Additionally, the act contains a 'General Duty Clause,' also enforced by the Secretary of Labor, which generally requires employers to provide workplaces that are free of potentially harmful hazards. The act created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ('OSHA') and an Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety and Health, to whom the Secretary of Labor has delegated his enforcement rights and obligations under the act. The act also established the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission ('OSHRC'), an adjudicatory agency independent of the Department of Labor, and therefore OSHA, that is tasked with reviewing enforcement actions. OSHA enforces its standards and the General Duty Clause through inspections, citations, and penalties. Employers can seek review of OSHA enforcement actions first with OSHRC and then with U.S. Courts of Appeals."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Perry, Rodney M.
2014-10-28
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Specialty Crop Provisions in the 2014 Farm Bill (P.L. 113-79) [July 10, 2014]
From the Summary: "U.S. farmers grow more than 350 types of fruit, vegetable, tree nut, flower, nursery, and other horticultural crops in addition to the major bulk commodity crops. Specialty crops, defined in statute as 'fruits and vegetables, tree nuts, dried fruits, and horticulture and nursery crops (including floriculture)' (P.L. [Public Law] 108-465; 7 U.S.C. [United States Code] §1621 note) comprise a major part of U.S. agriculture. In 2012, the value of farm-level specialty crop production totaled nearly $60 billion, representing about one-fourth of the value of U.S. crop production. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that retail sales of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables for athome consumption total nearly $100 billion annually. Exports of U.S. specialty crops totaled about $14 billion in 2013, or about 10% of total U.S. agricultural exports."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Renée
2014-07-10
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Global Climate Change Initiative (GCCI): Budget Authority and Request, FY2010-FY2013 [July 27, 2012]
"The United States supports international financial assistance for global climate change initiatives in developing countries. Under the Obama Administration, this assistance has been articulated primarily as the Global Climate Change Initiative (GCCI), a platform within the President's 2010 Policy Directive on Global Development. The GCCI aims to integrate climate change considerations into U.S. foreign assistance through a full range of bilateral, multilateral, and private sector mechanisms to foster low-carbon growth, promote sustainable and climate-resilient societies, and reduce emissions from deforestation and land degradation. The GCCI is implemented through programs at three 'core' agencies--the Department of State, the Department of the Treasury, and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)--and is funded through the Administration's Executive Budget, Function 150 account, for State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs. […] As Congress considers potential authorizations and/or appropriations for activities administered through the GCCI, it may have questions concerning U.S. agency initiatives and current bilateral and multilateral programs that address global climate change. Some potential concerns may include cost, purpose, direction, efficiency, and effectiveness, as well as the GCCI's relationship to industry, investment, humanitarian efforts, national security, and international leadership. This report serves as a brief overview of the GCCI and its structure, intents, and funding history."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lattanzio, Richard K.
2012-07-27
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G-20 Summit: Brisbane, November 15-16, 2014 [November 5, 2014]
From the Document: "The Group of Twenty (G-20) is a multilateral forum for advancing international cooperation and coordination among 20 major advanced and emerging-market economies. […] Australia has focused the 2014 agenda [hyperlink] on global economic growth. In February 2014, the G-20 finance ministers and central bank governors pledged [hyperlink] to develop policies that would boost the G-20's collective GDP [gross domestic product] by more than two percentage points over the coming five years. [...] The G-20 summit will also continue previous work on issues including financial regulatory reforms; reforming the international tax system; increasing the representation of emerging-markets at the International Monetary Fund (IMF); and building energy market resilience. Climate change [hyperlink] will also likely be added to the agenda, despite initial opposition by Australian officials. Some NGOs [non-governmental organizations] [hyperlink] are calling for a G-20 commitment of resources for the international response to the Ebola outbreak."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nelson, Rebecca M.
2014-11-05
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Iraq: Reconstruction Assistance [Updated July 22, 2008]
"A large-scale assistance program has been undertaken by the United States in Iraq since mid-2003. To date, nearly $45 billion has been appropriated for Iraq reconstruction. […]. A significant number of reconstruction activities on the ground are completed or ongoing, but security concerns have slowed progress and added considerable expense to these efforts. Reconstruction programs have included the training and equipping of Iraqi security forces; construction of road, sanitation, electric power, oil production, and other infrastructure; and a range of programs to offer expert advice to the Iraqi government, establish business centers, provide school books and vaccinations, finance village development projects, and promote civil society, etc. Reconstruction priorities have changed over time. Allocations within the Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund (IRRF), the main U.S. assistance account in the first few years, mirrored shifting events on the ground. However, funds shifted to security and democratization in the period from 2004 to 2006 meant fewer funds available for electric power and water projects. At this time, most infrastructure programs are no longer funded. The key emphases of the aid program are the training of Iraqi forces and programs assisting the development of Iraqi governing capacities and supporting the work of the Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs). The report will be updated as events warrant. For discussion of the Iraq political situation, see CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security, by Kenneth Katzman."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tarnoff, Curt
2008-07-22
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Nanotechnology and Environmental, Health, and Safety: Issues for Consideration [August 6, 2008]
This CRS report examines the environmental, health, and safety concerns that could arise as a result of the emerging field of nanotechnology. More specifically, "this report identifies the potential environmental, health, and safety opportunities and challenges of nanotechnology; explains the importance of addressing nanotechnology EHS [environmental, health, and safety] concerns; identifies and discusses nanotechnology EHS issues; and summarizes options for Congressional action, including the nanotechnology EHS-related provisions of selected legislation. The report also includes two appendices. Appendix A provides an overview of selected nanotechnology EHS activities of federal regulatory agencies. Appendix B provides an overview of selected EHS-related international engagement efforts of NNI [National Nanotechnology Initiative] agencies. [...] Nanotechnology -- a term encompassing nanoscale science, engineering, and technology -- is focused on understanding, controlling, and exploiting the unique properties of matter that can emerge at scales of one to 100 nanometers. These properties are believed by many to offer substantial economic and societal benefits. A key issue before Congress regarding nanotechnology is how best to protect human health, safety, and the environment as nanoscale materials and products are researched, developed, manufactured, used, and discarded. While the rapidly emerging field of nanotechnology is believed by many to offer significant economic and societal benefits, some research results have raised concerns about the potential [EHS] implications of nanoscale materials. Potential tools the Federal government might use to address these concerns include research and development, regulation, and international engagement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sargent, John F.
2008-08-06
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Navy Ohio Replacement (SSBN[X]) Ballistic Missile Submarine Program: Background and Issues for Congress [September 16, 2011]
"The Navy is conducting development and design work on a planned class of 12 next-generation ballistic missile submarines, or SSBN(X)s, which the service wants to procure as replacements for the 14 Ohio-class boats. The SSBN(X) program is also known as the Ohio replacement program (ORP). The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests $1,067 million in research and development funding for the program. Navy plans call for procuring the first SSBN(X) in FY2019, with advance procurement funding for the boat beginning in FY2015. The Navy estimates the average procurement cost of boats 2 through 12 in the program at $5.6 billion each in FY2010 dollars, and is now working to reduce that figure to a target of $4.9 billion each in FY2010 dollars. Even with this cost-reduction effort, some observers are concerned that procuring 12 SSBN(X)s during the 15-year period FY2019-FY2033, as called for in Navy plans, could lead to reductions in procurement rates for other types of Navy ships during those years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-09-16
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German Foreign and Security Policy: Trends and Transatlantic Implications [Updated July 21, 2008]
This CRS report discusses German foreign policy and trends in current leadership among Germany and other key European allies. Seen as part of a positive trend in leadership, "German Chancellor Angela Merkel took office in November 2005 promising a foreign policy anchored in a revitalized transatlantic partnership. Most observers agree that since reaching a low-point in the lead-up to the Iraq war in 2003, relations between the United States and Germany have improved. With recent leadership changes in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy, U.S. officials view Germany under Chancellor Merkel as a key U.S. ally in Europe. Despite continuing areas of divergence, President Bush and many Members of Congress have welcomed German leadership in Europe and have voiced expectations for increased U.S.-German cooperation on the international stage. German unification in 1990 and the end of the Cold War represented monumental shifts in the geopolitical realities that had traditionally defined German foreign policy. Germany was once again Europe's largest country, and the Soviet threat, which had served to unite West Germany with its pro-western neighbors and the United States, was no longer. Since the early 1990s, German leaders have been challenged to exercise a foreign policy grounded in a long-standing commitment to multilateralism and an aversion to military force while simultaneously seeking to assume the more proactive global role many argue is necessary to confront emerging security threats. Until 1994, Germany was constitutionally barred from deploying its armed forces abroad. Today, over 7,000 German troops are deployed in peacekeeping, stabilization, and reconstruction missions worldwide. However, as Germany's foreign and security policy continues to evolve, some experts perceive a widening gap between the global ambitions of Germany's political class, and an increasingly skeptical German public." This report also includes two appendices.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul
2008-07-21
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Deprivation of Honest Services as a Basis for Federal Mail and Wire Fraud Convictions [September 16, 2011]
"The United States Supreme Court in 'Skilling v. United States' construed the honest services branch of the federal mail and wire fraud statutes to reach no more than cases involving bribery or kickbacks. The mail and wire fraud statutes, 18 U.S.C. Sections 1341 and 1343, impose criminal penalties for the use of mail or interstate wire communications to deprive another of money or property through a 'scheme or artifice to defraud.' In its 1987 'McNally' decision, the Court had held that while the fraud statutes reached schemes to deprive another of property rights, they did not cover 'the intangible right of the citizenry to good government.' Congress responded almost immediately by enacting the 'honest services' statute, 18 U.S.C. Section 1346, which declares that the phrase 'scheme or artifice to defraud' in the mail and wire statutes also encompasses depriving 'another of the intangible right of honest services.' In its 2009 term, the Court was presented with three honest services cases--'Skilling', 'Black', and 'Weyhrauch'. Each offered the Court a slightly different prerequisite for an honest services conviction--for 'Weyhrauch', a public official, it was an underlying state law violation; for Black, in the private sector, it was foreseeable harm; for 'Skilling', an Enron executive, it was private gain. […] The Court sent each of the three cases back to the lower courts--'Black' and 'Skilling', for a determination of whether erroneous jury instructions on honest services fraud had so tainted their convictions as to require a new trial or whether the instructions simply constituted harmless error; 'Weyhrauch', for the reconsideration in light of the Court's 'Skilling' decision."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2011-09-16
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Intelligence Issues for Congress [Updated July 11, 2008]
"International terrorism, a major threat facing the United States in the 21st century, presents a difficult analytical challenge. Techniques for acquiring and analyzing information on small groups of plotters differ significantly from those used to evaluate the military capabilities of other countries. U.S. intelligence efforts are complicated by unfilled requirements for foreign language expertise. Whether all terrorist surveillance efforts have been consistent with the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA) has been a matter of controversy. Changes to FISA were enacted in legislation (H.R. 6304) signed by the President on July 10, 2008. Intelligence on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction was inaccurate and Members have criticized the performance of the Intelligence Community in regard to current conditions in Iraq and other situations. Improved analysis, while difficult to mandate, remains a key goal. Better human intelligence, it is argued, is also essential. Intelligence support to military operations continues to be a major responsibility of intelligence agencies. The use of precision guided munitions depends on accurate, real-time targeting data; integrating intelligence data into military operations will require changes in organizational relationships as well as acquiring necessary technologies. Counterterrorism requires the close coordination of intelligence and law enforcement agencies, but there remain many institutional and procedural issues that complicate cooperation between the two sets of agencies. This report will be updated as new information becomes available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2008-07-11
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Foreign Science and Engineering Presence in U.S. Institutions and the Labor Force [Updated July 23, 2008]
"The debate on the presence of foreign students in graduate science and engineering programs and the workforce has intensified as a result of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001." "Concerns have been expressed about certain foreign students receiving education and training in sensitive areas. There has been increased discussion about the access of foreign scientists and engineers to research and development (R&D) related to chemical and biological weapons. Also, there is discussion of the added scrutiny of foreign students from countries that sponsor terrorism." "The increased presence of foreign students in graduate science and engineering programs and in the scientific workforce has been and continues to be of concern to some in the scientific community. Enrollment of U.S. citizens in graduate science and engineering programs has not kept pace with that of foreign students in those programs. In addition to the number of foreign students in graduate science and engineering programs, a significant number of university faculty in the scientific disciplines are foreign, and foreign doctorates are employed in large numbers by industry. […]. Many in the scientific community maintain that in order to compete with countries that are rapidly expanding their scientific and technological capabilities, the country needs to bring to the United States those whose skills will benefit society and will enable us to compete in the new-technology based global economy. The academic community is concerned that the more stringent visa requirements for foreign students may have a continued impact on enrollments in colleges and universities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Matthews, Christine M.
2008-07-23
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Navy Virginia (SSN-774) Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress [September 16, 2011]
"The Navy has been procuring Virginia (SSN-774) class nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSNs) since FY1998. Fourteen have been procured through FY2011, and another two are requested for FY2012. The eight boats to be procured in the five-year period FY2009-FY2013 (boats 11 through 18, in annual quantities of 1-1-2-2-2) are being procured under a multiyear procurement (MYP) arrangement. The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests $3,232.2 million in procurement funding to complete the procurement cost of the 15th and 16th Virginia-class boats. The FY2012 budget estimates the combined procurement cost of these two boats at $5,142.8 million, and under Navy budget plans the boats are to receive a total of $1,910.5 million in prior-year advance procurement (AP) and Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) funding. The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget also requests $1,524.8 million in AP funding for Virginia-class boats to be procured in future years. The Navy's 30-year SSN procurement plan, if implemented, would not be sufficient to maintain a force of 48 SSNs consistently over the long run. The Navy projects that the SSN force will fall below 48 boats starting in 2024, reach a minimum of 39 boats in 2030, and remain below 48 boats through 2041. On September 1, 2011, it was reported that the Navy, in response to anticipated reductions in planned levels of defense spending, is considering a variety of budget-cutting options, but has identified attack submarines as a high priority and wants to preserve the two-per-year procurement rate for the Virginia-class program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2011-09-16
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FCC's Broadcast Media Ownership and Attribution Rules: The Current Debate [August 19, 2012]
"The Federal Communications Commission's (FCC's) broadcast media ownership rules, which place restrictions on the number of media outlets that a single entity can own or control in a local market or nationally, are intended to foster the three long-standing goals of U.S. media policy-- competition, localism, and diversity of voices. […] The FCC proposes eliminating its Radio/Television Cross-Ownership rule because it is no longer needed to foster the goals of diversity of voices and localism. It also proposes modifying its Newspaper/Broadcast Cross-Ownership rule to allow certain types of combinations in the 20 largest markets. […] In recent years, many television stations have entered into sharing arrangements with other stations in their local market to jointly sell advertising and/or produce local news programming, typically with one station managing that shared operation and perhaps providing most or all of the staffing and other resources. The FCC seeks public comment on how, for the purposes of the media ownership rules, to attribute control of a broadcast television station that has entered into such a sharing arrangement. […] The FCC also seeks public comment on how to define the criteria for an entity to be eligible for programs intended to promote the diversity of media ownership, and, in particular, to promote ownership by women and minorities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Goldfarb, Charles B.
2012-08-19
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Recent Protests in Muslim Countries: Background and Issues for Congress [September 20, 2012]
"Muslims in a number of countries have responded in recent days with anger at the United States that many observers describe as a response to a privately produced film circulating on the Internet that denigrates Islam and the prophet Mohammed. In some cases, this outrage has taken the form of public expressions by relatively small groups of demonstrators, and in other countries the demonstrations have been larger. In the most extreme cases, such demonstrations have been accompanied by violent attacks against U.S. diplomatic personnel and diplomatic facilities. Preexisting anti-U.S. sentiment and domestic political frustrations also appear to be contributing to the unrest. […] This report provides background information and analysis about the recent wave of protests and includes a summary appendix of select incidents and international responses organized geographically by country. The report discusses several issues of potential interest to Congress, including emerging debates on foreign assistance funding for countries affected by unrest, intelligence and diplomatic security policies, war powers considerations, and the potential effects of the current controversy on long-running international debates on religion and freedom of expression."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2012-09-20
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Fannie Mae's and Freddie Mac's Financial Status: Frequently Asked Questions [September 27, 2012]
"Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are stockholder-owned, government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs), which purchase existing mortgages, guarantee investors that the mortgages will be paid on time, pool the mortgages into mortgage-backed securities (MBSs), and either keep the MBSs as an investment or sell the MBSs to investors. Congressional charters give the GSEs a special relationship with the federal government, and it is widely believed that the federal government implicitly guarantees their $1.2 trillion in bonds and $3.7 trillion in MBSs. The charters give these GSEs special public policy goals aimed at providing liquidity in the mortgage market and promoting homeownership for underserved groups and locations. In 2008, the GSEs' financial condition had weakened and there were concerns over their ability to meet obligations. On September 7, 2008, the federal government took control of these GSEs from their stockholders and management in a process known as conservatorship. The goal of conservatorship is to restore the GSEs' financial strength and to return control to their stockholders and management. Congressional interest in Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac has increased in recent years, primarily because the federal government's continuing conservatorship of these GSEs has raised doubts about their future and concerns about the potential cost of supporting them. Congressional interest has been reflected by the introduction of bills to reform or replace the GSEs and by oversight hearings. This report presents, in analytical question and answer form, the major issues surrounding Fannie Mae's and Freddie Mac's financial conditions, and various public policy options under discussion. A glossary of terms is included at the end of this report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, N. Eric
2012-09-27
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Fruits, Vegetables, and Other Specialty Crops: Selected Federal Programs [October 3, 2012]
"U.S. farmers grow more than 350 types of fruit, vegetable, tree nut, flower, nursery, and other horticultural crops in addition to the major bulk commodity crops. Specialty crop producers are ineligible for the federal commodity price and income support programs that benefit commodity crop producers (e.g., grains and cotton); however, they are eligible for other types of U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) support. Unlike federal support for commodity crops, support for specialty crops spans a wide range of existing USDA programs, many of which also provide support to other agricultural commodities. These include marketing and promotion programs, crop insurance and disaster assistance, plant pest and disease protections, trade assistance, and research and extension services, among other types of miscellaneous support. The industry also benefits from fruit and vegetable purchases under various domestic nutrition assistance programs. Despite this wide range of program support, overall program spending on all specialty crops remains a small fraction of that spent on all commodity crops, even when considering both mandatory and discretionary funding."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Renée
2012-10-03
