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• U.S. Embassy in Iraq [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "The Bush Administration is in the process of establishing a new embassy in Baghdad with regional offices throughout Iraq. The President has requested more than $1.3 billion in its FY2005 supplemental request for the logistical, security and construction costs associated with the embassy. In 2005, even before it is built and fully staffed, this embassy is the largest worldwide in both staff size and budget. As of June 28, 2004 sovereignty officially was transferred to the Iraqi interim government. At the same time, the lines of U.S. government authority in Iraq were transferred from the Department of Defense (DoD), the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), and Ambassador Bremer to the Department of State (DoS), the American Embassy in Baghdad, and the newly-confirmed Ambassador Negroponte. This report discusses reestablishing diplomatic ties with Iraq and setting up the new embassy and regional teams. It will be updated as changes occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.

  2005-03-11
• Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002. On May 26, 2004, the government of Sudan and SPLA signed three protocols on Power Sharing, on the Nuba Mountains and Southern Blue Nile, and on the long disputed Abyei area. The signing of these protocols resolved all outstanding issues between the parties. On June 5, 2004, the parties signed 'the Nairobi Declaration on the Final Phase of Peace in the Sudan.' On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. The signing of the Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement effectively ended the 21-year old civil war and triggered a six-year Interim Period."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2005-03-11
• Zimbabwe: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "Parliamentary elections are scheduled in Zimbabwe for March 31, 2005, and they will be closely watched by supporters of human rights and democracy. The last parliamentary election, in June 2000, was marred by violence against the opposition and other irregularities. According to the Department of State, the presidential election in March 2002 was 'preceded and followed by a government-sanctioned campaign of violence directed towards supporters and potential supporters of the opposition.' Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice has labeled Zimbabwe an 'outpost of tyranny,' and the United States has enforced targeted sanctions against top Zimbabwe officials and associates since 2002. Moreover, the Administration has urged South Africa's President Thabo Mbeki to lead a regional effort to promote democracy and human rights in Zimbabwe. Should the 2005 voting again prove violent or manifestly unfair, some may advocate stronger measures."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.; Townsend, Jeffrey

  2005-03-11
• United Nations Peacekeeping: Issues for Congress [March 11, 2005]

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  "A major issue facing the United Nations, the United States, and Congress concerning United Nations peacekeeping is the extent to which the United Nations has the capacity to restore or keep the peace in the changing world environment. Associated with this issue is the expressed need for a reliable source of funding and other resources for peacekeeping and improved efficiencies of operation. For the United States, major congressional considerations on U.N. peacekeeping stem from executive branch commitments made in the U.N. Security Council. The concern with these commitments, made through votes in the Council, is the extent to which they bind the United States, both militarily and financially, to fund and to participate in some way in an operation. This includes placing U.S. military personnel under the control of foreign commanders. Since 1948, the United Nations (U.N.) has launched 59 peacekeeping operations, of which 16 are currently active. U.N. estimated peacekeeping expenditures went down from$3.4 billion in calendar year 1995 to $1.2 billion in 1997. Ongoing U.N. peacekeeping expenditures were estimated at $2.2 billion for the year starting on July 1, 2000, and $2.63 billion for the year starting on July 1, 2002. U.S. payments in calendar year 2000 were $518.6 million and $1.3 billion in CY2001. Peacekeeping has come to constitute more than just the placement of military forces into a cease-fire situation with the consent of all the parties. Military peacekeepers may be disarming or seizing weapons, aggressively protecting humanitarian assistance, and clearing land mines. Peacekeeping operations also now involve more non-military tasks such as maintaining law and order (police), election monitoring, and human rights monitoring."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Browne, Marjorie Ann

  2005-03-11
• Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy ('Mad Cow Disease') and Canadian Beef Imports [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or 'mad cow disease) is a degenerative, fatal disease affecting the nervous system in cattle," and rarely occurs in North America. Three reported cases from Canadian cattle-one in 2003 and two in 2005- spurred the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to ban Canadian beef imports during the years of reported disease, only to subsequently create controversial regulatory policies. A lawsuit was filed in April 2004 by the group, Ranchers-Cattlemen Action Legal Fund United Stockgrowers of America, which asked for a temporary restraining order of USDA policy allowing import of Canadian bovine products, claiming inconsistent relaxations on the import ban. Filings by the Canadian Cattlemen for Fair Trade in August 2004 and the American Meat Institute in December 2004 claimed the import bans discriminatory and unfounded. U.S. Federal courts took action in resolving these and other lawsuits that stymied the USDA's rulemaking efforts. Regulations pertaining to Canadian cattle and beef imports were unclear at the time this report was published. "This report, which will be updated if significant developments ensue, provides a narrative chronology of selected U.S. actions after the discovery of BSE in North America, presenting in sequence this often confusing chain of events. The report focuses on USDA's steps to reopen the U.S. border to Canadian beef, and concludes with a discussion of USDA's actions in the context of APA [Administrative Procedure Act] rulemaking procedures."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Becker, Geoffrey S.; Copeland, Curtis W.

  2005-03-11
• Nuclear Weapons: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "A comprehensive test ban treaty, or CTBT, is the oldest item on the nuclear arms control agenda. Three treaties currently limit testing to underground only, with a maximum force equal to 150,000 tons of TNT. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, the United States conducted 1,030 nuclear tests, the Soviet Union 715, the United Kingdom 45, France 210, and China 45. The last U.S. test was held in 1992; the last U.K. test, in 1991. Russia claims it has not conducted nuclear tests since 1991. Since 1997, the United States has held 21 'subcritical experiments' at the Nevada Test Site, most recently on May 25, 2004, to study how plutonium behaves under pressures generated by explosives. It asserts these experiments do not violate the CTBT because they cannot produce a self-sustaining chain reaction. Russia has reportedly held some since 1998, including several in 2000. In May 1998, India and Pakistan each announced several nuclear tests and declared themselves nuclear weapons states. Each declared a moratorium on further tests, but separately stated, in the summer of 2000, that the time was not right to sign the CTBT. […] Congress continues to consider the Stockpile Stewardship Program, which seeks to maintain nuclear weapons without testing. The appropriation for the program (Weapons Activities) was $5.429 billion for FY2002, $5.954 billion for FY2003, and $6.273 billion for FY2004. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2005 provided $6.526 billion for Weapons Activities and $19.0 million to fund the U.S. contribution to a global system for monitoring events that might violate the treaty."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2005-03-11
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Controversies for the 109th Congress [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "One major element of the energy debate in the 109th Congress is whether to approve energy development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska, and if so, under what conditions, or whether to continue to prohibit development to protect the area's biological resources, along with its recreational and subsistence values. The Refuge is an area rich in fauna, flora, and commercial oil potential. Sharp increases in prices of gasoline and natural gas from late 2000 to early 2001, followed by terrorist attacks, and increases again in 2004- 2005, have renewed the ANWR debate; however, its development has been debated for more than 40 years. Few onshore U.S. locations stir as much industry interest as the northern area of ANWR. At the same time, few areas are considered more worthy of protection in the eyes of conservation and some Native groups. Current law forbids energy leasing in the Refuge. On March 9, 2005, the House Budget Committee ordered the FY2006 budget resolution (number not yet available) to be reported; the measure did not contain assumptions regarding ANWR revenues. A day later, the Senate Budget Committee ordered S.Con.Res. 18 to be reported. Its version of the resolution contained instructions to the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources that assumed revenues from the sale of ANWR leases."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Baldwin, Pamela; Gelb, Bernard A.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2005-03-11
• Iraq: Post-Saddam National Elections [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "Elections for a transitional National Assembly, provincial councils, and a Kurdish regional assembly were held on January 30, 2005. High voter turnout in mostly Shiite and Kurdish areas led to a first and second place finish for slates backed by these two communities; and they are negotiating what appears to be a fragile governing coalition. Sunni Arabs mostly boycotted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2005-03-11
• Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board: 109th Congress Proposed Refinements [March 11, 2005]

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  "Among the recommendations made by the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission) in its final report was the creation of a board within the executive branch to oversee adherence to guidelines on, and the commitment to defend, civil liberties by the federal government. This report examines the realization of this recommendation with the creation of the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, and efforts in the 109th Congress to refine the mandate and the mission of the board. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Relyea, Harold

  2005-03-11
• Iraq: Debt Relief [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  "Iraq's public debt was estimated to be US$120.2 billion in nominal value as of the end of 2004. The debt owed to Paris Club creditors as of December 31, 2004, was estimated to be US$38.9 billion. The U.S. share of this amount is around $4 billion. Non-Paris Club countries, mostly Persian Gulf countries, are owed around $60-$65 billion. The remaining debts are to private commercial creditors. Iraqi debt relief (both Paris Club and non-Paris Club) is a high priority for both the President and Congress. This report will discuss efforts to implement Iraqi debt relief, as well as efforts to persuade non-Paris Club countries to forgive their Iraqi debts. It will also highlight several policy concerns. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Weiss, Martin A.

  2005-03-11
• DODs National Security Personnel System: Provisions of Law and Implementation Plans [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "Title XI, Subtitle A, of the law authorizes the Secretary of Defense and the Director of the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) to establish a new human resources management (HRM) system for DOD's civilian employees and to jointly prescribe regulations for the system. The Secretary and the Director are authorized to establish and adjust a labor relations system and are required to provide a written description of the proposed personnel system or any adjustments to such system to the labor organizations representing DOD employees. A collaboration procedure must be followed by the Secretary, Director, and employee representatives. The Secretary is authorized to engage in any collaboration activities and collective bargaining at an organizational level above the level of exclusive recognition. The Secretary also is authorized to establish an appeals process that provides fair treatment for DOD employees covered by the NSPS [National Security Personnel System]. Regulations applicable to employee misconduct or performance that fails to meet expectations may not be prescribed until after the Secretary consults with the Merit Systems Protections Board (MSPB) and must afford due process protections and conform to public employment principles of merit and fitness at 5 U.S.C. §3201. A qualifying employee subject to some severe disciplinary actions may petition the MSPB for review of the department's decision. The board could dismiss any petition that does not raise a substantial question of fact or law and order corrective action only if the board finds that the department's personnel decision did not meet some prescribed standards. An employee adversely affected by a final decision or order of the board could obtain judicial review."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schwemle, Barbara L.

  2005-03-11
• Defense Program Issue: Global Information Grid, Bandwidth Expansion (GIG-BE) [Updated March 11, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "The Global Information Grid (GIG) is the enabling infrastructure for Network Centric Warfare (NCW), a concept that relies on communications technology to link together U.S. military personnel, ground vehicles, aircraft, and naval vessels through integrated wide and local area networks to provide improved battle space awareness for joint military forces. The GIG Bandwidth Expansion program (GIG-BE) is a component of the overall GIG, that involves upgrading the capacity of the busiest equipment and transmission pathways composing the central portion of the GIG. Some question whether the GIG-BE design will support military requirements for transmitting the expected future high volume of encrypted network traffic. Also, because each service is developing a separate network architecture that will tie into the GIG, some observers question whether these differences will limit interoperability of the overall GIG, and thus reduce its usefulness to warfighters. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wilson, Clay

  2005-03-11
• Overview of the Federal Tax System [March 10, 2005]

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  "The individual income tax is the major source of federal revenue, followed closely by Social Security taxes. As a revenue source, the corporate income tax is a distant third. Federal estate and gift and excise taxes play only minor roles as revenue sources. In 2004, individual income taxes accounted for 43% of total federal revenue. Social security taxes accounted for 39%. Corporate income taxes accounted for 10%; excise taxes accounted for 4%; and estate and gift, customs, and miscellaneous taxes accounted for the remaining 4% of total revenue. Over time, corporate income tax has become much less important as a revenue source while social security taxes have become much more important. In 2000, total receipts were 20.8% of gross domestic output (GDP), which represented a post World War II high. By 2003, federal receipts had fallen to16.5% of GDP, the lowest level since 1959. Most of this reduction was attributable to legislated tax cuts. Taxes (including all levels of government) in the United States are low compared to those in most other developed countries. There are four individual income tax filing categories: married filing jointly, married filing separately, head of household, and single individual. The individual income tax base is wages, salaries, tips, income from investments and, business income. The base is reduced by certain adjustments, such as contributions to traditional IRAs, producing adjusted gross income (AGI). Standard or itemized deductions and personal exemptions reduce AGI to taxable income, which is taxed at graduated rates of 10%, 15%, 25%, 28%, 33%, and 35%. Preliminary tax liability is then reduced by tax credits to arrive at a taxpayer's final income tax liability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gravelle, Jane; Esenwein, Gregg A.; Brumbaugh, David

  2005-03-10
• Peacekeeping and Related Stability Operations: Issues of U.S. Military Involvement [Updated March 10, 2005]

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  "For over a decade, some Members of Congress have expressed reservations about - U.S. military involvement in peacekeeping. The Bush Administration's decision to reduce the commitment of U.S. troops to international peacekeeping seems to reflect a major concern: that peacekeeping duties are detrimental to military 'readiness,' i.e., the ability of U.S. troops to defend the nation. Others, however, view peacekeeping and related stability operations as a necessary feature of the United States' current and possible future U.S. military activities. With the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq, often referred to as a 'stabilization and reconstruction' operation (which manifests some characteristics of a peace operation), concerns about whether U.S. forces are large enough and appropriately configured to carry out that operation over several years dominate that debate. These concerns were heightened by the 9/11 Commission report, which cited Afghanistan, where the Administration has limited U.S. involvement in peacekeeping and nation-building, as a sanctuary for terrorists and pointed to the dangers of allowing actual and potential terrorist sanctuaries to exist."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Serafino, Nina M.

  2005-03-10
• China-U.S. Relations: Current Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated March 10, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "A growing concern for U.S. policymakers is China's growing global 'reach' and the consequences that China's increasing international economic and political influence will have for U.S. interests. To feed its voracious appetite for resources, China is steadily and successfully seeking trade agreements, oil and gas contracts, scientific and technological cooperation, and even multilateral security arrangements with countries in Asia, Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and with Canada. Some of China's growing relationships are with key U.S. allies. Even if these trends are the benign consequences of China's economic development and growth, they may pose critical future challenges for U.S. economic and political interests. At the same time, these trends appear to have prompted Japan to seek closer U.S. relations as a counterweight to China's growing regional power."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2005-03-10
• National Preparedness System: Issues in the 109th Congress [March 10, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "The NPS [national preparedness system] represents the most comprehensive effort taken to develop an emergency preparedness and response system that relies upon all levels of government and non-governmental actors. Compliance might be an issue of debate during the the 109th Congress. In general, agreement appears to exist among federal and non-federal emergency management officials that standards and objectives are required. Some express concern, however, that agencies in poor or rural areas may lack the resources to reach new national standards; these areas could be penalized through the loss of federal funds if they fail to meet the standards. Issues of federalism and state sovereignty might be raised as some contend that the national concern with preparedness for terrorist attacks could subordinate local priorities, particularly those associated with natural disasters. Accordingly, Members of Congress might elect to evaluate the reach of the presidential directives that underlie these documents, and consider legislation to modify or help oversee the policy changes. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bea, Keith

  2005-03-10
• Iraq: U.S. Military Operations [Updated March 9, 2005]

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  "Iraq's chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons programs, together with Iraqi long-range missile development and support for al-Queda terrorism, were the primary justifications put forward for military action. On March 17, 2003, President Bush issued an ultimatum demanding that Saddam Hussein and his sons depart from Iraq within 48 hours. On March 19, offensive operations began with air strikes against Iraqi leadership positions. By April 15, after 27 days of operations, coalition forces were in relative control of all major Iraqi cities and Iraqi political and military leadership had disintegrated. On May 1, 2003, President Bush declared an end to major combat operations. There was no use of chemical or biological (CB) weapons, and no CB or nuclear weapons stockpiles or production facilities have been found. The major challenges to coalition forces are now quelling a persistent Iraqi resistance movement and training sufficient Iraqi forces to assume responsibility for the nations domestic security. Though initially denying that there was an organized resistance movement, DOD officials have now acknowledged there is regional/local organization, with apparently ample supplies of arms and funding."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bowman, Steve

  2005-03-09
• Appropriations Subcommittee Structure: History of Changes from 1920-2005 [Updated March 9, 2005]

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  "This report details the evolution of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees' subcommittee structure from the 1920s to the present. In 1920, the House adopted a change in its rules to consolidate jurisdiction over all appropriations in the Appropriations Committee. After the enactment of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the House reorganized its Appropriations Committee by establishing for the first time a set of subcommittees to consider appropriations bills based on the administrative organization of the executive branch. The Senate followed suit in1922, and the two chambers have continued under that basic organizational approach since that time."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Saturno, James

  2005-03-09
• European Views and Policies Toward the Middle East [Updated March 9, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "Many analysts assert that the United States and Europe share common vital interests in the Middle East: combating terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; promoting Middle East peace and stability; ensuring a reliable flow of oil; and curtailing Islamic extremism. U.S. and European policies to promote these goals often differ considerably. Although the European governments are not monolithic in their opinions on the Middle East, European perspectives have been shaped over time by common elements unique to Europe's history and geo-strategic position. Many Europeans believe the Israeli-Palestinian conflict should be a priority. They view it as a key driver of terrorism, Islamic extremism, and political unrest among Europe's growing Muslim populations. In contrast, the U.S. Administration stresses that terrorism and weapons proliferation are the primary threats and must be pro-actively confronted; peace and stability in the region will not be possible until these twin threats are removed. A number of other factors, such as divergent perceptions of the appropriate role of the use of force and growing European Union (EU) ambitions to play a larger role on the world stage, also contribute to the policy gaps that have emerged."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Archick, Kristin

  2005-03-09
• Transportation Security: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  "The nation's air, land, and marine transportation systems are designed for accessibility and efficiency, two characteristics that make them highly vulnerable to terrorist attack. While hardening the transportation sector from terrorist attack is difficult, reasonable measures can be taken to deter terrorists. The focus of this issue brief is how best to construct and finance a system of deterrence, protection, and response that effectively reduces the possibility and consequences of another terrorist attack without unduly interfering with travel, commerce, and civil liberties. Aviation security has been a major focus of transportation security policy following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. In the aftermath of these attacks, the 107th Congress moved quickly to pass the Aviation and Transportation Security Act (ATSA; P.L. 107-71) creating the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and mandating a federalized workforce of security screeners to inspect airline passengers and their baggage. The Act gave the TSA broad authority to assess vulnerabilities in aviation security and take steps to mitigate these risks. The TSA's progress on aviation security has been the subject of considerable congressional oversight over the past three years. It is expected that aviation security policy and programs will continue to be of considerable interest in the 109th Congress. The volume of ridership and number of access points make it impractical to subject all rail passengers to the type of screening airline passengers undergo. Nevertheless, there are prudent steps that can be taken to reduce the risks, and consequences, of an attack. These include vulnerability assessments; emergency planning; and emergency response training and drilling of transit personnel, ideally in coordination with police, fire, and emergency medical personnel, as well as purchase of communication and safety equipment. Additional options include increasing the number of transit security personnel, installing video surveillance equipment in vehicles and stations, and conducting random inspections of platforms and trains using bomb-sniffing dogs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Frittelli, John

  2005-03-08
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  "Under the Bush Administration, U.S.- China-Taiwan relations have undergone a number of changes. Initially, the new Administration seemed to abandon the long-standing U.S. policy of 'strategic ambiguity' on Taiwan in favor of 'strategic clarity' that placed more emphasis on Taiwan's interests and less on PRC [People's Republic of China] concerns. Among other things, President Bush publicly stated that the United States would do 'whatever it takes' to help Taiwan's defense -- a position more supportive of Taiwan than had been articulated by previous U.S. presidents. In April 2001, the President also approved a substantial sale of U.S. weapons to Taiwan, including Kidd-class destroyers, anti-submarine P-3 'Orion' aircraft, and diesel submarines. The White House also was more accommodating to visits from Taiwan officials than previous U.S. Administrations, and permitted visits from Taiwan's president in 2001 and 2003, and from Taiwan's vice president and defense minister in 2002. […] Political trends in Taiwan have raised anxieties about its future and the implications for U.S. policy. Some are concerned that a continued emphasis on 'Taiwan identity' may lead to ethnic polarization and conflict. Others are concerned about the implications that these trends have for a possible declaration of Taiwan independence, which Beijing has vowed to 'pay any price' to prevent. In recent months, political developments in Taiwan appear to be causing the Bush Administration to dial back its earlier enthusiasm for supporting Taiwan. U.S. officials now appear to be balancing criticisms of the PRC military buildup opposite Taiwan with periodic cautions and warnings to the effect that U.S. support for Taiwan is not unconditional, but has limits. This issue brief tracking the situation in Taiwan will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2005-03-08
• Nigeria in Political Transition [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  "Nigeria continues to make progress in strengthening its fragile democracy but faces serious economic challenges. Nigeria's population, now 133 million, is projected to grow to over 260 million by 2025. Nigeria remains relatively stable, although ethnic and religious clashes in some parts of the country have led to massive displacement of civilian populations. Thousands of civilians have been killed over the past several years and many more wounded in religious clashes. Under President Obasanjo, Nigeria has emerged has a major player in Africa. President Obasanjo took a leading role in the creation of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) and the African Union (AU). He is the current Chairman of the AU. President Obasanjo also played key roles in facilitating the exile of Liberian President Charles Taylor. Nigeria is also facilitating negotiations between the government of Sudan and the Darfur rebels. In August 2003, Nigeria sent an estimated 1,500 troops to Liberia as part of a West African-led peacekeeping force."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2005-03-08
• Dominican Republic: Political and Economic Conditions and Relations with the United States [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  "President Leonel Fernández of the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), who served as president previously (1996-2000), took office on August 16, 2004. Press reports indicate that, seven months into his four-year term, President Fernández has restored some confidence in the Dominican economy. Since August 2004, the Dominican currency has risen 30% against the U.S. dollar and inflation has declined dramatically. The Fernández administration has struggled, however, to cope with rising crime rates and persistent electricity shortages. On December 28, 2004, President Fernández signed a bill repealing a Dominican tax on drinks containing high fructose corn syrup, a major U.S. product, that had threatened the country's chances of being included in the U.S.- Dominican Republic-Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA). On January 31, 2005, the IMF approved a new $670 million loan agreement with the Dominican Republic. For further information, see CRS Report RL32322, 'Central America and the Dominican Republic in the Context of the Free Trade Agreement' (DRCAFTA), coordinated by Larry Storrs. This report will be updated periodically."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2005-03-08
• Libya [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  "The United Nations Security Council passed three resolutions that placed sanctions on Libya until Libya surrendered for trial two men suspected of bombing Pan Am flight 103 in 1988 and French flight UTA 772 in 1989. Libya surrendered the two men on April 5, 1999, and the U.N. suspended the sanctions the same day. U.S. sanctions against Libya remain in place. Libyan-U.S. relations have been plagued by a series of incidents between U.S. and Libyan armed forces, Libyan policies of supporting terrorism, Libya's search for chemical and nuclear weapons, and Libyan meddling in other nations' internal affairs. Al-Qadhafi has proposed bilateral and multilateral unions with his neighbors and several other countries, and envisions himself as carrying on for Egypt's Nasir in unifying the Arab, Islamic, and African worlds. Libyan leader Muammar al-Qadhafi implemented a form of participatory democracy in Libya, where villages elect Peoples' Congresses, which in turn elect Peoples' Congresses for geographic regions and the central government. In addition, there are Peoples' Congresses representing industries or institutions, such as education, medicine, or broadcasting. Despite the presence and apparent activity of the Peoples' Congresses, it is clear that members of the Revolutionary Command Council, created after the 1969 coup, and their cohort continue to exercise great influence, perhaps dictatorial authority, over Libya. Libya's economy depends upon oil; current production is running at 1.4 million barrels per day of high quality crude, most of which is exported to Western Europe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2005-03-08
• Federal Research and Development Funding: FY2006 [March 8, 2005]

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  "The Bush Administration has requested $132.2 billion in federal research and development (R&D) funding for FY2006. This sum, represents a $505 million increase over the FY2005 estimated funding level of $131.7 billion. In real dollars, total federal R&D would decline for the first time since FY1996. The proposed FY2006 R&D budget reflects the Administrations objective of constraining the growth of federal discretionary spending."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bolkcom, Christopher C.

  2005-03-08
• Campaign Financing [March 8, 2005]

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  "Concerns over financing federal elections have become a seemingly perennial aspect of our political system, long centered on the enduring issues of high campaign costs and reliance on interest groups for needed campaign funds. Rising election costs had long fostered a sense in some quarters that spending was out of control, with too much time spent raising funds and elections 'bought and sold.' Debate had also focused on the role of interest groups in campaign funding, especially through political action committees (PACs). Differences in perceptions of the campaign finance system were compounded by the major parties' different approaches. Democrats tended to favor more regulation, with spending limits and public funding or benefits a part of past proposals. Republicans generally opposed such limits and public funding."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cantor, Joseph E.

  2005-03-08
• Journalists' Privilege to Withhold Information in Judicial and Other Proceedings: State Shield Statutes

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  "Absent a statutory or constitutional recognition of journalistic privilege, a reporter may be compelled to testify in legal, administrative, or other governmental proceedings. To date, thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have recognized a journalists' privilege through enactment of press 'shield laws,' which protect the relationship between reporters, their source, and sometimes, the information that may be communicated in that relationship. The journalists' privilege is distinct from other recognized privileges, in that the privilege vests only with the journalist, not with the source of the information. This report briefly provides an overview of general trends among the states individual statutes. The remainder of this report sets forth the full text of the state shield statutes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cohen, Henry, 1949-; Lening, Carey

  2005-03-08
• Counterintelligence Reform at the Department of Energy: Policy Issues and Organizational Alternatives [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "Troubled by reported lapses in security and counterintelligence (CI) at the Department of Energy (DOE), the Congress in 1999 established a semi-autonomous agency -- the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) -- to oversee DOE's national security-related programs (P.L. 106-65). Within NNSA, Congress created the Office of Defense Nuclear Counterintelligence to 'implement' CI policy at NNSA facilities. DOE retained a separate Office of Counterintelligence, which 'develops' CI policy for DOE and NNSA, but, implements it only at non-NNSA facilities. Though representing separate organizations, the two CI offices share resources and personnel for some programs. Although DOE has taken steps to strengthen CI practices, some observers have questioned whether the Department's bifurcated CI structure is the most effective in countering continuing efforts by foreign intelligence services, friendly and hostile, to target DOE and NNSA facilities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cumming, Alfred

  2005-03-08
• United States and Europe: Possible Options for U.S. Policy [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "The United States and Europe share a long and intertwined history, replete with many ups and downs. The modern transatlantic relationship was forged in the aftermath of World War II to deter the Soviet threat and to promote security and stability in Europe. NATO and the European Union (EU), the latest stage in a process of European integration begun in the 1950s, are the two key pillars upon which the U.S.-European partnership still rests. The U.S. Congress and successive U.S. administrations have supported both organizations as means to nourish democracy, foster reliable military allies, and create strong trading partners. Nevertheless, the transatlantic partnership has been fundamentally challenged in recent years as numerous trade and foreign policy conflicts have emerged. The crisis over Iraq is most notable, but the list of disagreements is wide and varied. It includes the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the role of multilateral institutions and the use of force, missile defense, the U.S. treatment of prisoners in Iraq and at Guantánamo Bay, aircraft subsidies, and trade in genetically-modified food. These disputes have been driven partly by leadership frictions and European perceptions of U.S. unilateralism, and partly by structural issues -- different policy preferences for managing threats, the U.S.-European defense capabilities gap, and the EU's political evolution -- set in motion by the end of the Cold War and September 11. These factors are also prompting some Americans and Europeans to question whether the two sides of the Atlantic still share the same values and interests, and whether enough commonality remains to make the partnership work. This report assesses the present state of the U.S.-European relationship and the reasons for current frictions. To stimulate debate and for the purposes of analysis, it also offers a spectrum of possible options for U.S. policymakers in considering the future shape of the political and strategic dimensions of the transatlantic partnership. These selected options should be viewed as illustrative guideposts, however, rather than definitive, exhaustive predictions or stark choices."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Archick, Kristin

  2005-03-08
• Voting in the Senate: Forms and Requirements [Updated March 7, 2005]

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  "Voting is among the most important public acts of individual Senators. For example, Senators recognize that their decisions often need to be explained to constituents who are interested in knowing why lawmakers voted as they did on various measures or matters. Party leaders, too, understand the importance of voting, for they often try to schedule votes during a time when they believe they can win senatorial support for their objectives. That Senators try never to miss votes is reflected in the high percentage of rollcall votes that they cast. On all recorded votes taken in the chamber, Senators, on average, cast votes over 95% of the time. There are three ways of voting in the Senate: voice, division, and yea and nay (also called rollcall or recorded) votes. Neither voice nor division votes are recognized in the rules of the Senate. Instead, they are permitted by precedent. Senate Rule XII outlines voting procedure in the chamber and explicitly identifies 'the yeas and nays.'."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Oleszek, Walter J.

  2005-03-07