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Unauthorized Aliens in the United States: Estimates Since 1986 [September 15, 2004]
"This report presents data estimating the number of unauthorized aliens who have been living in the United States since 1986. There have been a variety of estimates of the unauthorized resident alien population over this period, sometimes with substantially different results. This report is limited to data analysis of the Current Population Survey (CPS) conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Census and the Bureau of Labor Statistics so that there is a basic standard of comparison over time."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2004-09-15
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State Efforts to Deter Unauthorized Aliens: Legal Analysis of Arizona's S.B. 1070 [June 7, 2011]
"On April 23, 2010, Arizona enacted S.B. 1070, which is designed to discourage and deter the entry or presence of aliens who lack lawful status under federal immigration law. Potentially sweeping in effect, the measure requires state and local law enforcement officials to facilitate the detection of unauthorized aliens in their daily enforcement activities. The measure also establishes criminal penalties under state law, in addition to those already imposed under federal law, for alien smuggling offenses and failure to carry or complete alien registration documents. Further, it makes it a crime under Arizona law for an unauthorized alien to apply for or perform work in the state, either as an employee or an independent contractor. […] S.B. 1070, as amended, was scheduled to go into effect on July 29, 2010. However, the U.S. Department of Justice filed suit seeking to preliminarily enjoin the enforcement of certain sections of S.B. 1070 on the grounds that they are preempted. On July 28, 2010, a federal district court enjoined Arizona from enforcing those provisions of S.B. 1070 pertaining to immigration status verifications, among other things. Arizona appealed this decision, and on April 11, 2011, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit issued an opinion affirming the district court's decision. Arizona's governor has reportedly expressed a desire to appeal this decision, and the district court has yet to issue a final ruling as to the merits of the government's challenge."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Eig, Larry M.; Garcia, Michael John; Manuel, Kate
2011-06-07
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State Efforts to Deter Unauthorized Aliens: Legal Analysis of Arizona's S.B. 1070 [September 14, 2010]
"On April 23, 2010, Arizona enacted S.B. 1070, which is designed to discourage and deter the entry or presence of aliens who lack lawful status under federal immigration law. [...] The enactment of S.B. 1070 has sparked significant legal and policy debate. Supporters argue that federal enforcement of immigration law has not adequately deterred the migration of unauthorized aliens into Arizona, and that state action is both necessary and appropriate to combat the negative effects of unauthorized immigration. Opponents argue, among other things, that S.B. 1070 will be expensive and disruptive, will be susceptible to uneven application, and can undermine community policing by discouraging cooperation with state and local law enforcement. In part to respond to these concerns, the Arizona State Legislature modified S.B. 1070 on April 30, 2010, through the approval of H.B. 2162. [...] S.B. 1070, as amended, was scheduled to go into effect on July 29, 2010. However, the U.S. Department of Justice filed suit seeking to preliminarily enjoin the enforcement of certain sections of S.B. 1070 on the grounds that they are preempted. On July 28, 2010, a federal district court enjoined Arizona from enforcing those provisions of S.B. 1070 pertaining to immigration status determinations during lawful stops, detentions, or arrests; failure to apply for or carry alien registration papers; the solicitation or performance of work by unauthorized aliens; and warrantless arrests for certain public offenses. Enforcement of other provisions of S.B. 1070 was not enjoined. Arizona has appealed the district court's decision."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Eig, Larry M.; Garcia, Michael John; Manuel, Kate
2010-09-14
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State Efforts to Deter Unauthorized Aliens: Legal Analysis of Arizona's S.B. 1070 [May 3, 2010]
"On April 23, 2010, Arizona enacted S.B. 1070, which is designed to discourage and deter the entry or presence of aliens who lack lawful status under federal immigration law. Potentially sweeping in effect, the measure requires state and local law enforcement officials to facilitate the detection of unauthorized aliens in their daily enforcement activities. The measure also establishes criminal penalties under state law, in addition to those already imposed under federal law, for alien smuggling offenses and failure to carry or complete alien registration documents. Further, it makes it a crime under Arizona law for an unauthorized alien to apply for or perform work in the state, either as an employee or an independent contractor. The enactment of S.B. 1070 has sparked significant legal and policy debate. Supporters argue that federal enforcement of immigration law has not adequately deterred the migration of unauthorized aliens into Arizona, and that state action is both necessary and appropriate to combat the negative effects of unauthorized immigration. Opponents argue, among other things, that S.B. 1070 will be expensive and disruptive, will be susceptible to uneven application, and can undermine community policing by discouraging cooperation with state and local law enforcement. In part to respond to these concerns, the Arizona State Legislature modified S.B. 1070 on April 30, 2010, through the approval of H.B. 2162. Whenever states enact laws or adopt policies to affect the entry or stay of noncitizens, including aliens present in the United States without legal authorization, questions can arise whether Congress has preempted their implementation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Eig, Larry M.; Garcia, Michael John; Kim, Yule
2010-05-03
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Interior Immigration Enforcement Prior to 2014: Programs Targeting Criminal Aliens [Updated August 27, 2013]
From the Summary: "Congress has a long-standing interest in seeing that immigration enforcement agencies identify and deport criminal aliens. The expeditious removal of such aliens has been a statutory priority since 1986, and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and its predecessor agency have operated programs targeting criminal aliens since 1988. These programs have grown substantially since FY2005, and deportations of criminal aliens--along with other unauthorized immigrants--have grown proportionally. Despite the interest in criminal aliens, inconsistencies in data quality, data collection, and definitions make it impossible to precisely enumerate the criminal alien population, defined in this report as all noncitizens ever convicted of a crime. The Congressional Research Service (CRS) estimates the number of noncitizens incarcerated in federal and state prisons and local jails--a subset of all criminal aliens--at 183,830 in 2011 (the most recent year for which complete data are available), with state prisons and local jails each accounting for somewhat more incarcerations than federal prisons. The overall proportion of noncitizens in prisons and jails corresponds closely to the proportion of noncitizens in the total U.S. population."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William
2013-08-27
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Immigration: 'Recalcitrant' Countries and the Use of Visa Sanctions to Encourage Cooperation with Alien Removals [Updated January 23, 2020]
From the Document: "The ability to repatriate foreign nationals (aliens) who violate U.S. immigration law is central to the immigration enforcement system. The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) provides broad authority to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ) to remove certain foreign nationals from the United States. Any foreign national found to be inadmissible or deportable under the grounds specified in the INA may be ordered removed. Those ordered removed may include unauthorized aliens (i.e., foreign nationals who enter without inspection, enter with fraudulent documents, or enter legally but overstay their temporary visas). Lawfully present foreign nationals who commit crimes or certain other acts may also be subject to removal. To effectuate a removal, the alien's country of citizenship must confirm the alien's nationality, issue travel documents, and accept his or her physical return by commercial flight or, where necessary, charter flight."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wilson, Jill, 1974-
2020-01-23
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Immigration-Related Criminal Offenses [January 21, 2020]
From the Document: "The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) governs the admission, removal, and presence of non-U.S. nationals (aliens). Congress has established criminal sanctions for certain conduct that undermines immigration rules. Immigration-related cases make up a significant portion of the federal criminal caseload. 'See' U.S. SENTENCING COMMISSION, FISCAL YEAR 2018 OVERVIEW OF FEDERAL CRIMINAL CASES 12 (2019). Immigration-related crimes generally cover three categories of conduct: (1) improper entry and reentry; (2) the smuggling, transporting, and harboring of aliens; and (3) immigration-related fraud."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Santamaria, Kelsey Y.
2020-01-21
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Are DACA Recipients Eligible for Federal Employment? [January 15, 2019]
"The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) prohibits employers, including federal agencies, from knowingly hiring non-U.S. nationals (aliens) who are not authorized to work in the United States. By statute, certain aliens are generally authorized to work in the United States, and the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), by regulation, may enumerate additional categories of aliens who may obtain permission to work. Using this power, DHS has generally permitted aliens who obtain relief under the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program to seek employment in the United States. Aliens who qualify for DACA relief--namely, certain aliens who came to the United States as children, lack lawful immigration status, and have not engaged in activities that render them ineligible for relief--may be permitted to remain in the United States and receive work authorization for renewable two-year periods. [...] This Sidebar briefly examines laws governing the employment of aliens in the United States, including restrictions on federal employment and their application to DACA recipients."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Hillel R.
2019-01-15
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Legalization Framework Under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) [November 5, 2019]
From the Document: "The population of unlawfully present aliens in the United States numbers between 10 million and 12 million, according to recent estimates. The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) takes three primary approaches to regulating this population: removal, deterrence, and--to a lesser extent-- legalization. Legalization, as used here, means the granting of a lawful immigration status to an unlawfully present alien so that he or she is no longer subject to removal under the INA. Put differently, an unlawfully present alien 'legalizes' by obtaining lawful permanent resident status (LPR or 'green card' status) or any other status (such as a nonimmigrant status) that extinguishes the statutory basis for his or her removal. The INA takes a generally restrictive approach to legalization. During much of the 20th century, a statutory provision called 'registry' allowed unlawfully present aliens to obtain LPR status based on their long-standing presence in the United States. If unlawfully present aliens had entered the United States before a fixed cutoff date and satisfied other requirements, such as a lack of certain types of criminal convictions, they could apply to the Attorney General for LPR status. The registry statute is now effectively obsolete because its cutoff date, which Congress last updated in 1986, remains fixed at 1972."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Harrington, Ben
2019-11-05
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Is Mandatory Detention of Unlawful Entrants Seeking Asylum Constitutional? [Updated January 27, 2021]
From the Document: "Non-U.S. nationals (aliens) apprehended by immigration authorities when attempting to unlawfully enter the United States are generally subject to a streamlined, expedited removal process, but may be placed in 'formal' removal proceedings and pursue asylum claims if found to have a credible fear of persecution. In 2019, Attorney General (AG) William Barr, who had power to review adjudicatory decisions of the Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA), the highest administrative body responsible for interpreting immigration laws, concluded in 'Matter of M-S-' that federal law requires the continued detention of aliens screened for expedited removal who are transferred to formal removal proceedings pending adjudication of their asylum claims. (Additional discussion of the AG's decision can be found here.) Later that year, a federal district court held in 'Padilla v. ICE [U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement]' that this mandatory detention scheme 'violates the U.S. Constitution' because it denies aliens who have entered the United States the opportunity to seek their release on bond. This ruling was largely affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in March 2020, but the reasoning of these decisions--at least when applied to aliens apprehended shortly after arriving in the United States--may be in tension with the Supreme Court's ruling in 'DHS v. Thuraissigiam', decided a few months later. In 'Thuraissigiam', the Court recognized that aliens seeking initial entry to the United States, including those apprehended just within the border, have limited constitutional protections. Ultimately, in the 'Padilla' case, the Supreme Court vacated the Ninth Circuit's decision and remanded the case for further consideration in light of 'Thuraissigiam'. As a result, immigration authorities may, for the time being, detain unlawful entrants transferred to formal removal proceedings for consideration of their asylum applications without a bond hearing."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Hillel R.
2021-01-27
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Unauthorized Immigrants' Access to COVID-19 Vaccines [February 25, 2021]
From the Document: "COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] vaccines have been widely viewed as a means of reducing the spread of COVID-19 and facilitating a return to work and school. In general, for COVID-19 vaccines to effectively reduce disease transmission, a large percentage of the population must be vaccinated. This includes anyone who resides in the United States regardless of their authorization to do so. This Insight covers the distribution of COVID-19 vaccine to unauthorized immigrants (sometimes referred to as 'undocumented') in the United States--a population that may face barriers to vaccine access."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Heisler, Elayne J., 1976-; Kolker, Abigail F.
2021-02-25
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U.S. Strategy for Engagement in Central America: Policy Issues for Congress [Updated June 12, 2019]
From the Document: "Central America has received renewed attention from U.S. policymakers over the past few years as the region has remained a major transit corridor for illicit drugs and has surpassed Mexico as the largest source of irregular migration to the United States. These narcotics and migrant flows are the latest symptoms of deep-rooted challenges in several countries in the region, including widespread insecurity, fragile political and judicial systems, and high levels of poverty and unemployment. The U.S. government and partners in the region have begun to implement new initiatives intended to address those challenges, but living conditions in Central America have yet to improve significantly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Meyer, Peter J.
2019-06-12
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Unauthorized Alien Students: Issues and 'DREAM Act' Legislation [Updated January 20, 2015]
From the Introduction: "Immigration reform has been hotly debated in recent years. Although many component issues are controversial, the question of legalizing large numbers of unauthorized immigrants in the United States has been a focal point of debate, galvanizing both support for and opposition to reform proposals. Historically less controversial has been legislation known as the 'DREAM Act' that proposes a more targeted legalization program to enable certain unauthorized students to obtain legal immigration status. The name DREAM Act derives from the bill title, Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act, but it refers more broadly to a class of measures to provide immigration relief to unauthorized alien students, whether or not particular bills carry that name. [...] Bills to legalize the status of unauthorized alien students were again introduced in the 112th Congress. Some of these bills were similar to the measure approved by the House in the 111th Congress, while others included more traditional DREAM Act elements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2015-01-20
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Immigration Enforcement & the Anti-Commandeering Doctrine: Recent Litigation on State Information-Sharing Restrictions [Updated March 10, 2020]
From the Document: "Although the federal government is vested with exclusive power to regulate the entry and removal of non-U.S. nationals (aliens), the impact of immigration is acutely felt in local communities. Some states and local governments have agreed to assist in the enforcement of immigration laws, such as by identifying and apprehending aliens for removal. Others have chosen not to assist in immigration enforcement efforts. In some cases, these states and localities have adopted measures--sometimes labeled 'sanctuary' laws and policies--that limit cooperation between state or local law enforcement and federal immigration authorities. For instance, California's SB-54 generally prohibits law enforcement agencies from using agency money or personnel to investigate, interrogate, detain, detect, or arrest persons for the purpose of immigration enforcement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Santamaria, Kelsey Y.
2020-03-10
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First Amendment and 'Encouraging' or 'Inducing' Unlawful Immigration [March 12, 2020]
From the Document: "In 'United States v. Sineneng-Smith', the Supreme Court is considering the constitutionality of a federal criminal prohibition against encouraging or inducing illegal immigration. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit previously held that the law was unconstitutionally overbroad in violation of the First Amendment because the terms 'encourage' and 'induce' could criminalize a substantial amount of protected speech. The government appealed the decision to the Supreme Court, arguing that the law operates as a prohibition on facilitation and solicitation of unlawful activity and is therefore not overbroad. 'Sineneng-Smith' is potentially important, not only for federal immigration law and how it is enforced, but also more broadly for First Amendment jurisprudence on when Congress can criminalize speech that encourages illegal activity. This Sidebar provides an overview of the case, beginning with background on immigration and free speech law, before turning to the specific issues raised by 'Sineneng-Smith' and its potential implications for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Novak, Whitney K.; Santamaria, Kelsey Y.
2020-03-12
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Supreme Court Upholds Limited Review of Expedited Removal [July 6, 2020]
From the Document: "Certain non-U.S. nationals (aliens) who lack authorization to enter the United States are subject to a streamlined 'expedited removal' process, which affords fewer procedural protections to the alien than standard removal proceedings and typically results in the quicker expulsion of the alien from the United States. Federal statute also precludes judicial review of an expedited removal order except in limited circumstances, including habeas corpus proceedings concerning whether the alien is lawfully detained. But habeas review is limited to three narrow grounds, and does not include review of threshold determinations about asylum eligibility or any other aspect of the merits of the underlying expedited removal proceedings. In 'DHS v. Thuraissigiam,' the Supreme Court considered whether these statutory limitations violate the Suspension Clause, which normally forbids the government from restricting an individual's ability to contest his or her detention in a habeas action. The Court held that the statute's restrictions on the ability of an alien in expedited removal to challenge matters other than the lawfulness of his detention did not violate the Suspension Clause. The Court also held that the statute's limitations on judicial review did not violate the Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause because aliens seeking initial entry to the United States--which comprise most aliens in expedited removal--have limited due process protections."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Hillel R.
2020-07-06
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Unaccompanied Alien Children: An Overview [Updated October 9, 2019]
From the Summary: "The number of unaccompanied alien children (UAC, unaccompanied children) apprehended at the Southwest border between U.S. ports of entry while attempting to enter the United States without authorization has increased substantially in recent years: from 16,067 in FY2011 to 24,481 in FY2012 to 38,759 in FY2013. In FY2014, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Customs and Border Protection (CBP) apprehended 68,541 UAC, a record at that time. Since FY2014, UAC apprehensions have fluctuated considerably, declining to 39,970 in FY2015, increasing to 59,692 in FY2016, declining to 41,435 in FY2017, and increasing to 50,036 in FY2018. In the first 11 months of FY2019, they reached 72,873, a level that now exceeds the FY2014 peak."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William
2019-10-09
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Unauthorized Childhood Arrivals, DACA, and Related Legislation [Updated June 30, 2020]
From the Introduction: "On June 4, 2019, the House passed the American Dream and Promise Act of 2019 (H.R. 6) on a vote of 237 to 187. Title I of the bill, the Dream Act of 2019, would establish a process for certain unauthorized immigrants who entered the United States as children (known as unauthorized childhood arrivals) to obtain lawful permanent immigration status. This vote on H.R. 6 was one of several House and Senate floor votes since 2018--and the only successful one--on legislation to grant some type of immigration relief to unauthorized childhood arrivals. As commonly used, the term 'unauthorized childhood arrivals' encompasses both individuals who entered the United States unlawfully and individuals who entered legally but then lost legal status, by, for example, overstaying an authorized temporary period of stay. There is no single set of requirements that defines an unauthorized childhood arrival. Individual bills include their own criteria. This report considers House and Senate measures on unauthorized childhood arrivals that have seen legislative action since 2001, focusing in particular on legislation considered in the 115th and 116th Congresses. It also discusses the related Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) initiative and DACA-related data. For the most part, the material is presented chronologically to trace the development of legislative proposals on unauthorized childhood arrivals and highlight the interplay between legislative action on these measures and developments related to the DACA initiative."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2020-06-30
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Unauthorized Immigrants' Eligibility for COVID-19 Relief Benefits: In Brief [May 1, 2020]
From the Introduction: "Of the 44.4 million foreign-born individuals residing in the United States in 2017, about one-quarter (10.5 million) were estimated to be unauthorized immigrants. Nearly two-thirds of unauthorized immigrants have resided in the United States for over 10 years. The degree to which unauthorized immigrants should be accorded certain rights and privileges as a result of their residence in the United States has long been the subject of congressional interest, which has been heightened amidst the coronavirus pandemic and the congressional response to its impact on the economy. Prior to 1996, there was no uniform rule governing which categories of foreign nationals (i.e., 'aliens' ) residing in the United States were eligible for which government-provided benefits and services. Title IV of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA, P.L. 104-193) established comprehensive restrictions on the eligibility of noncitizens for federal public benefits. These restrictions applied to the majority of non-naturalized (i.e., non-U.S. citizen) foreign-born persons, including lawful permanent residents (also known as 'green card holders'), asylees and refugees, nonimmigrants, and unauthorized immigrants. This report focuses exclusively on the unauthorized population; it outlines their eligibility for federal benefits generally, and for benefits included in the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA; P.L. 116-127) and the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act; P.L. 116-136) specifically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kolker, Abigail F.
2020-05-01
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U.S. Strategy for Engagement in Central America: Policy Issues for Congress [Updated November 12, 2019]
From the Summary: "Central America has received renewed attention from U.S. policymakers over the past few years as the region has remained a major transit corridor for illicit drugs and has surpassed Mexico as the largest source of irregular migration to the United States. These narcotics and migrant flows are the latest symptoms of deep-rooted challenges in several countries in the region, including widespread insecurity, fragile political and judicial systems, and high levels of poverty and unemployment. The U.S. government has worked more closely with partners in Central America to address those challenges since 2014, making some tentative progress. The region is now at serious risk of backsliding, however, as the Trump Administration has begun to withdraw U.S. diplomatic pressure and foreign aid while some Central American officials have begun to undermine anti-corruption campaigns and other structural reforms."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Meyer, Peter J.
2019-11-12
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Immigration Parole [October 15, 2020]
From the Summary: "The parole provision in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) gives the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) discretionary authority to 'parole into the United States temporarily under such conditions as he may prescribe only on a case-by-case basis for urgent humanitarian reasons or significant public benefit any alien applying for admission to the United States.' Immigration parole is official permission to enter and remain temporarily in the United States. It does not constitute formal admission under the U.S. immigration system. An individual granted parole (a parolee) is still considered an applicant for admission. A parolee is permitted to remain in the United States for the duration of the grant of parole, and may be granted work authorization. The DHS Secretary's parole authority has been delegated to three agencies within the department: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). Parole can be requested by foreign nationals inside or outside the United States in a range of circumstances. Major parole categories include port-of-entry parole, advance parole, humanitarian parole, and parole-in-place."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2020-10-15
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Unauthorized Alien Students: Legislation in the 107th and 108th Congresses [Updated January 17, 2007]
From the Summary: "Unauthorized alien students constitute a subpopulation of the total U.S. unauthorized alien population that is of particular congressional interest. These students receive free public primary and secondary education, but often find it difficult to attend college for financial reasons. A provision enacted as part of a 1996 immigration law prohibits states from granting unauthorized aliens certain postsecondary educational benefits on the basis of state residence, unless equal benefits are made available to all U.S. citizens. This prohibition is commonly understood to apply to the granting of 'in-state' residency status for tuition purposes. In addition, unauthorized aliens are not eligible for federal student financial aid. More generally, as unauthorized aliens, they are not legally allowed to work in the United States and are subject to being removed from the country at any time."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra; Kuenzi, Jeffrey J., 1965-
2007-01-17
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Post-9/11 GI Bill: A Primer [Updated September 23, 2021]
From the Summary: "The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) administers several educational assistance programs, most notably the GI Bills, that provide funds to or on behalf of veterans and servicemembers and their family members to facilitate their enrollment in and pursuit of approved programs of education. The Post-9/11 GI Bill has represented more than 70% of total GI Bill participation and more than 80% of spending in each year since FY2013. In FY2022, the program is estimated to benefit over 600,000 individuals and expend almost $10 billion. For a description of the other veterans educational assistance programs, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R42785, 'Veterans' Educational Assistance Programs and Benefits: A Primer.' The Post-9/11 Veterans' Educational Assistance Act of 2008 (Post-9/11 GI Bill)--enacted as Title V of the Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2008 (P.L. 110-252) on June 30, 2008--is the newest GI Bill and went into effect on August 1, 2009. There were four main drivers for the Post-9/11 GI Bill: (1) providing parity of benefits for reservists and members of the regular Armed Forces, (2) ensuring comprehensive educational benefits, (3) meeting military recruiting goals, and (4) improving military retention through transferability of benefits."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dortch, Cassandria
2021-09-23
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China's Recent Trade Measures and Countermeasures: Issues for Congress [September 20, 2021]
From the Introduction: "This report assesses a set of interrelated trade laws, regulations, and policies that the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC or China) has adopted since 2020 that are designed to enhance its control over a wide range of commercial activity, within and outside of China, and to counter the reach of certain economic and national security-related policies and authorities of the United States and other governments. China, for example, has adopted a new law on export controls and related technology catalogues, new measures on the security review of foreign investment, measures to create and operationalize a list of 'unreliable entities,' 'blocking measures,' and a related anti-sanctions law, all of which seek to broadly limit the extraterritorial applications of U.S. and other foreign laws and policies of concern to China. The Chinese government also has drafted regulations that seek to enhance its control over critical materials such as rare earth elements (REEs), as well as data and scientific research."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sutter, Karen M.
2021-09-20
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated September 23, 2021]
From the Introduction: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as geopolitical competition in the region between the United States, Russia, and China; increased military operations in the region by the United States, Russia, and other Arctic countries; growth in commercial shipping through the Arctic; and oil, gas, and mineral exploration in the Arctic could cause the region in coming years to become an arena of international cooperation, tension, and/or competition. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial political, economic, energy, environmental, and other interests in the region. Decisions that Congress makes on Arctic-related issues could significantly affect these interests. This report provides an overview of Arctic-related issues for Congress, and refers readers to more in-depth CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports on specific Arctic-related issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2021-09-23
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COVID-19: Selected Financial and Social Service Resources for Older Americans [Updated September 20, 2021]
From the Document: "This Insight links to selected resources for older constituents who have been financially affected by the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Breslauer, Tamar B.; Napili, Angela; Overbay, Abigail R.
2021-09-20
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Federal Student Loan Debt Relief in the Context of COVID-19 [Updated September 17, 2021]
From the Introduction: "The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329, as amended) authorizes the operation of three federal student loan programs: the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan (Direct Loan) program, the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) program, and the Federal Perkins Loan program. While new loans are currently authorized to be made only through the Direct Loan program, previously made FFEL and Perkins Loan program loans remain outstanding and borrowers of such loans remain responsible for repaying them. [...] This report provides an overview of student loan repayment flexibilities and debt relief provisions that may be available to borrowers facing financial difficulties resulting from the pandemic. It first lists some preexisting loan terms and conditions (authorized through statute and regulations) that may be available to individuals. It then discusses specific administrative and congressional actions taken to address student loan debt in the context of COVID-19. The report concludes with a brief description of additional existing authorities that could be utilized to address other aspects of student loan relief."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hegji, Alexandra
2021-09-17
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FDA Approval of the Pfizer-BioNtech COVID-19 Vaccine: Frequently Asked Questions [Updated September 29, 2021]
From the Document: "In August 23, 2021, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine manufactured by Pfizer and BioNTech for individuals 16 years of age or older. The Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine is the first COVID-19 vaccine--and the first vaccine based on messenger RNA (mRNA) technology-- to be licensed by FDA. Pfizer and BioNTech will market their licensed COVID-19 vaccine under the brand name Comirnaty (pronounced koe-MIR-na-tee). [...] FDA's approval of Comirnaty has caused some confusion about the scope of FDA's approval, the relationship between Comirnaty and the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, and other issues. This report addresses some common questions about FDA's approval of Comirnaty."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hickey, Kevin J.; Bodie, Agata; Ward, Erin H.
2021-09-29
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PREP Act and COVID-19: Limiting Liability for Medical Countermeasures [Updated September 23, 2021]
From the Document: "To encourage the expeditious development and deployment of medical countermeasures during a public health emergency, the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act (PREP Act [hyperlink]) authorizes the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to limit legal liability for losses relating to the administration of medical countermeasures such as diagnostics, treatments, and vaccines. In a declaration effective February 4, 2020 (the HHS Declaration [hyperlink]), the Secretary of HHS (the Secretary) invoked the PREP Act and declared Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) to be a public health emergency warranting liability protections for covered countermeasures. Under the HHS Declaration and its amendments, covered persons are generally immune [hyperlink] from legal liability (i.e., they cannot be sued for money damages in court) for losses relating to the administration or use of covered countermeasures against COVID-19. The sole exception to PREP Act immunity is for death or serious physical injury caused by 'willful misconduct [hyperlink].' However, individuals who die or suffer serious injuries directly caused by the administration of covered countermeasures may be eligible [hyperlink] to receive compensation through the Countermeasures Injury Compensation Program [hyperlink]."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hickey, Kevin J.
2021-09-23
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Potential WTO TRIPS Waiver and COVID-19 [Updated September 13, 2021]
From the Document: "The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has spurred biopharmaceutical companies to conduct costly and risky research and development (R&D) to develop vaccines and other products to respond to COVID-19. Firms have relied on intellectual property rights (IPR) to commercialize these products. Governments and nonprofits have funded and coordinated some of the underlying R&D. Some groups have voiced concerns over the impact of IPR on affordable access to these products for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). On May 5, 2021, the Biden Administration announced its support for the concept of a waiver of parts of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) for COVID-19 vaccines, and pledged to 'actively participate in text-based negotiations at the [WTO] to make that happen.' Many consider this notable, given the United States' history of advancing IPR standards globally. Members of Congress are divided on the issue. An active debate is underway in the WTO on the role of IPR and trade policy in the pandemic response."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Fergusson, Ian F.
2021-09-13
