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Bolivia: Presidential Resignation and Aftermath [Updated January 7, 2020]
From the Document: "On November 10, 2019, Bolivia's Evo Morales of the Movement Toward Socialism (MAS) party resigned his presidency and sought asylum in Mexico. He ultimately received refugee status in Argentina. Bolivia's military suggested Morales consider resigning to prevent violence after weeks of protests alleging fraud in the October 20, 2019, election. Three individuals in line to succeed Morales (the vice president and the presidents of the senate and the chamber of deputies) also resigned. Opposition Senator Jeanine Añez, formerly second vice president of the senate, declared herself senate president and then interim president on November 12. Bolivia's constitutional court recognized her succession. Following protests and state violence, the MAS-led Congress unanimously approved an electoral law to annul the October elections and select a new electoral tribunal. On January 3, 2020, the tribunal announced those elections are scheduled for May 3, 2020. The Trump Administration and Congress have expressed concerns regarding irregularities and manipulation in Bolivia's election and violence following the election and Morales's resignation. They support efforts to ensure the May elections are free and fair."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando
2020-01-07
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Defense Primer: Personnel Tempo (PERSTEMPO) [Updated January 7, 2020]
From the Document: "As a result of the nation's extended involvement in contingency operations around the globe, some servicemembers have experienced prolonged, frequent, and/or stressful deployments. In addition, preparation for deployments (e.g., training, exercises, temporary duty assignments) can lead to extended working hours or frequent travel away from home station. The pace of operations for individuals is commonly referred to as 'personnel tempo' (PERSTEMPO) and can affect quality of life, work satisfaction, and overall morale for members and their families."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kamarck, Kristy N.
2020-01-07
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Small Satellite Boom Poses Challenges for Regulators [Updated January 7, 2020]
From the Document: "Regulators and policymakers are struggling to keep pace with small satellites, spacecraft the size of shoe boxes that are displacing school bus-sized satellites for many purposes. 'Smallsats,' as they are known, occupy low Earth orbit (LEO) at an altitude of between about 310 and 1,200 miles above Earth's surface. Many currently in orbit are about 10 centimeters wide and weigh less than 3 pounds. They have been used in government operations, but commercial companies are increasingly building and deploying them for communications, broadband internet, remote sensing, and Earth observation missions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
King, Alyssa K.
2020-01-07
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Defense Primer: Reserve Forces [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "The term 'reserve component' (RC) refers collectively to the seven individual reserve components of the Armed Forces. Congress exercises authority over the reserve components under its constitutional authority 'to raise and support Armies,' 'to provide and maintain a Navy,' and 'to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia.... ' (Article I, Section 8) There are seven reserve components: [1] Army National Guard; [2] Army Reserve; [3] Navy Reserve; [4] Marine Corps Reserve; [5] Air National Guard; [6] Air Force; Reserve; [7] Coast Guard Reserve."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kapp, Lawrence
2020-01-06
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Defense Primer: Military Pay Raise [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "The phrase 'military pay raise,' frequently used in discussions of military compensation, almost always refers to the annual increase in 'basic pay' for members of the uniformed services. By law, basic pay is automatically increased at the start of each calendar year by an amount linked to the change in the Employment Cost Index (ECI), although the President or Congress may override this statutory adjustment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kapp, Lawrence
2020-01-06
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Energy and Water Development Appropriations: Nuclear Weapons Activities [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Summary: "NNSA [National Nuclear Security Administration] operates three programs: Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation, [...] Naval Reactors, [...] and Weapons Activities. The last is the subject of this report. The Weapons Activities account supports programs that maintain U.S. nuclear missile warheads and gravity bombs and the infrastructure programs that support that mission. Specifically, according to DOE's [Department of Energy] budget documentation, these programs 'support the maintenance and refurbishment of nuclear weapons to continue sustained confidence in their safety, reliability, and performance; continued investment in scientific, engineering, and manufacturing capabilities to enable certification of the enduring nuclear weapons stockpile; and manufacture of nuclear weapons components.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.; Medalia, Jonathan E.
2020-01-06
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Hong Kong: Recent Developments and U.S. Relations [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR, or Hong Kong) is a city located off the southern coast of Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China (PRC or China). More than 90% of Hong Kong's population is ethnically Chinese. The first language of the vast majority is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese different from what is spoken in most of China. In part because of its different language and long history as a British colony (1842 to 1997), the people of Hong Kong ('Hong Kongers') have a cultural and social identity distinct from that of Mainland China ('Mainlanders'). This includes a legacy of laissez-faire economics and a common law legal system adopted from the British legal system, along with a passionate support for universal human rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Martin, Michael F.
2020-01-06
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Introduction to Financial Services: The Federal Reserve [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "The Federal Reserve Act (12 U.S.C. 221 et seq.) created the Federal Reserved (Fed) as the nation's central bank in 1913. The Fed is composed of 12 regional Federal Reserve banks overseen by a Board of Governors in Washington, DC. [...] The board is composed of seven governors nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The President selects (and the Senate confirms) a chair and two vice chairs from among the governors; one vice chair is responsible for supervision. The governors serve nonrenewable 14-year terms, but the chair and vice chairs serve renewable 4-year terms. Jerome Powell's term as chair began February 5, 2018. Board members are chosen without regard to political affiliation. Regional bank presidents are chosen by their boards, not by the President, with the approval of the Board of Governors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Labonte, Marc
2020-01-06
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Introduction to Financial Services: Accounting and Auditing Regulatory Structure, U.S. And International [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "This In Focus provides an overview of how accounting and auditing standards are created and regulated in the private sector, the federal government, and state and local governments. Different accounting and auditing standards evolved in the private and public sector to address the specific needs of their respective stakeholders. This In Focus also discusses two policy issues that might be of interest to Congress and investors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gnanarajah, Raj
2020-01-06
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National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), Reinsurance, and Catastrophe Bonds [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "The Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2014 (P.L. 113-89) revised the authority of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) to secure reinsurance from 'private reinsurance and capital markets.' Risk transfer to the private market could reduce the likelihood of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) borrowing from the Treasury to pay claims. In addition, it could allow the NFIP to recognize some of its flood risk up front through premiums it pays for risk transfers rather than after-the-fact borrowing, and could help the NFIP to reduce the volatility of its losses over time. However, because reinsurers charge premiums to compensate for the assumed risk as well as the reinsurers' costs and profit margins, the primary benefit of reinsurance is to manage risk, not to reduce the NFIP's long-term fiscal exposure."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Horn, Diane P.; Webel, Baird
2020-01-06
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Space Weather: An Overview of Policy and Select U.S. Government Roles and Responsibilities [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Introduction: "Space weather refers to the dynamic conditions in Earth's outer space environment. This includes conditions on the Sun, in the solar wind, and in Earth's upper atmosphere. Space weather phenomena include [1] solar flares or periodic intense bursts of radiation from the sun caused by the sudden release of magnetic energy, [2] coronal mass ejections composed of clouds of solar plasma and electromagnetic radiation, ejected into space from the sun, [3] high-speed solar wind streams emitted from low density regions of the sun, and [4] solar energetic particles or highly-charged particles formed at the front of solar flares and coronal mass ejections. [...] This report provides an overview of federal government policy developed under the existing legislative framework, and describes the specific roles and responsibilities of select federal departments and agencies responsible for the study and mitigation of space weather hazards."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lipiec, Eva; Humphreys, Brian E.
2020-01-06
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U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have heightened significantly, and evolved into conflict after U.S. military forces killed Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Quds Force (IRGC-QF) and one of Iran's most important military commanders, in a U.S. airstrike in Baghdad on January 2, 2020. In 2018, the Trump Administration withdrew from the 2015 multilateral nuclear agreement with Iran (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, JCPOA), and since mid-2019 has taken several steps in its campaign of applying 'maximum pressure' on Iran. Apparently in response to the maximum pressure campaign, Iran and Iran-linked forces have attacked and seized commercial ships, caused destruction of some critical infrastructure in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, attacked facilities used by U.S. military personnel in Iraq, and downed a U.S. unmanned aerial vehicle. As part of an effort its leaders term 'maximum resistance,' Iran has also reduced its compliance with the provisions of the JCPOA. The Administration has been deploying additional military assets to the region to try to deter future Iranian actions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.
2020-01-06
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Fact Sheet on Leaders and Elections [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "This report provides the results of recent presidential elections in Latin America and the Caribbean. Below are three tables organized by region, that include the date of each country's independence, the name of the most recently elected president or prime minister, and the projected date of the next presidential election. Information in this report was gathered from numerous sources, including the U.S. State Department, Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA's) World Fact Book, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Election Guide, Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and other news sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davis-Castro, Carla Y.; DeBruyne, Nese F.
2020-01-06
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U.S.-Taiwan Trade Relations [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Document: "Taiwan is a developed, dynamic, and competitive economy that is highly dependent on global trade. Taiwan has fared relatively well during the recent U.S.-People's Republic of China (PRC) trade conflict as a key link in global technology supply chains, supplying both U.S. and PRC markets. Looking ahead, Taiwan faces significant constraints as it seeks to overcome domestic challenges (such as labor mismatches and energy shortages), generate new sources of growth in emerging technologies, and diversify away from a growing economic dependence on the PRC. Amidst U.S.-PRC tensions, Taiwan is walking a fine line in trying to remain central to both U.S. and PRC technology markets, including supplying PRC companies like Huawei. Central to Taiwan's ambitions is the Taiwan government's effort to start talks with the United States on a free trade agreement (FTA) in the hope that an FTA might not only increase bilateral trade but potentially open the door to other FTAs and trade diversification for Taiwan."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sutter, Karen M.
2020-01-06
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USMCA: Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) [Updated January 6, 2020]
From the Background: "The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) is a proposed free trade agreement (FTA) negotiated among the three parties to update and replace the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). [...] USMCA would make notable changes to NAFTA provisions on intellectual property (IP)--creations of the mind embodied in physical and digital objects. IPR [intellectual property rights] are time-limited rights that governments grant to inventors and artists to exclude others from using their inventions and creations without permission. [...] IP-intensive goods and services are an important part of U.S. trade with Canada and Mexico. The United States has expressed concern over certain IPR policies in both countries in recent years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias
2020-01-06
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Cable Franchising Authority of State and Local Governments and the Communications Act [January 3, 2020]
From the Document: "Companies that provide cable television service (cable operators) are subject to regulation at the federal, state, and local levels. Under the Communications Act of 1934, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC or Commission) exercises regulatory authority over various operational aspects of cable service. [...] This report first outlines the FCC's role in regulating cable operators and franchising authorities, beginning with the Commission's approach under the Communications Act through the passage of the Cable Act and its amendments. The report then turns to a discussion of recurring legal issues over the FCC's power over franchising authorities. The report concludes with a discussion of possible legal issues that may arise in current legal challenges to FCC regulations and offers considerations for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Linebaugh, Chris D.; Holmes, Eric N.
2020-01-03
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Defense Primer: Congress's Constitutional Authority with Regard to the Armed Forces [Updated January 3, 2020]
From the Document: "The power 'To declare War' has long been construed to mean not only that Congress can formally take the nation into war, but also that it can authorize the use of the Armed Forces for military expeditions that may not amount to war. While a restrictive interpretation of the power 'To declare War' is possible, for example, by viewing the Framers' use of the verb 'to declare' rather than 'to make' as an indication of an intent to limit Congress's ability to affect the course of a war once it is validly commenced, Congress's other powers over the use of the military would likely fill any resulting void. In practice, courts have not sought to delineate the boundaries of each clause relating to war powers or identify gaps between them to find specific powers that are denied to Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer K.
2020-01-03
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Defense Primer: Legal Authorities for the Use of Military Forces [Updated January 3, 2020]
From the Document: "By the Framers' apparent design, in order to keep the nation's 'purse' and the 'sword' in separate hands and in other ways hinder its embroilment in unnecessary wars, the Constitution divides war powers between Congress and the President. Congress is empowered to declare war, provide for and regulate the Armed Forces, and issue letters of marque and reprisal, as well as to call forth the militia to suppress an insurrection, repel an invasion, or 'execute the Laws of the Union.' The President, as the Commander in Chief, has the responsibility to direct the Armed Forces as they conduct hostilities, put down insurrections, or execute the law when constitutionally authorized to do so. But the extent to which the President has independent authority under the Constitution, without explicit statutory support, to use the military for purposes other than to repel a sudden attack is the subject of long-standing debate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer K.
2020-01-03
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Defense Primer: RDT&E
From the Document: "Advanced technology plays a critical role in ensuring U.S. national security. To maintain technological superiority on the battlefield, the Department of Defense (DOD) relies on scientific and technical knowledge developed in large measure through research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) funded by the department and performed by industry, universities, federal laboratories, and others. DOD also relies increasingly on technology developed by the private sector for commercial markets. This In Focus describes DOD's RDT&E appropriations structure and funding levels."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sargent, John F.
2020-01-03
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U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues [Updated January 3, 2020]
From the Summary: "Even though the United States has reduced the number of warheads deployed on its long-range missiles and bombers, consistent with the terms of the 2010 New START [Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty] Treaty, it is also developing new delivery systems for deployment over the next 10-30 years. The 116th Congress will continue to review these programs, and the funding requested for them, during the annual authorization and appropriations process."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2020-01-03
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Enforcing International Trade Obligations in USMCA: The State-State Dispute Settlement Mechanism [January 3, 2020]
From the Document: "Enforcement of many obligations in the proposed United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which would replace the existing North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) if ratified, is covered by the dispute settlement mechanism in USMCA's Chapter 31. This mechanism would permit any of the three Parties who intend to join the Agreement (i.e., the United States, Mexico, and Canada) to bring a claim against another Party that is allegedly violating its USMCA obligations. Chapter 31, which draws substantially on NAFTA's Chapter 20 mechanism, applies to a majority of the Parties' USMCA obligations, but there are exceptions. For instance, article 32.12 exempts certain investment decisions reviewed under the 'Investment Canada Act' from Chapter 31. Additionally, USMCA includes more complex enforcement provisions for some of its chapters, including the Environment and Labor Chapters. This InFocus provides an overview of USMCA's Chapter 31 process."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hart, Nina M.
2020-01-03
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Funding U.S.-Mexico Border Barrier Construction: Current Issues [Updated January 3, 2020]
From the Document: "The construction of barriers on the U.S.-Mexico borders to control unauthorized crossings has been a matter of significant debate since President Donald Trump made construction of a border wall a key element of his campaign for the presidency. This Insight provides a brief overview of the funding history for these barriers and how the current administration is redirecting federal funds to support construction of additional mileage."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Painter, William L.; Mann, Christopher T.
2020-01-03
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Comparing DHS Component Funding, FY2020: In Brief [Updated January 3, 2020]
From the Document: "The homeland security appropriations bill includes all annual appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), providing resources to every departmental component. This report reviews the budget authority provided to DHS for FY2019 and requested by the Trump Administration for FY2020, as well as the funding levels proposed by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees in their reported legislation for FY2020 and ultimately enacted in P.L. [Public Law] 116-93, Division D. In the process, it also includes information on DHS funding from two enacted FY2019 supplemental appropriations measures: P.L. 116-20, a disaster relief supplemental; and P.L. 116-26, a supplemental appropriations bill funding humanitarian and security operations at the U.S.-Mexico border. The report provides a look at the resources available to DHS components that are described in appropriations committee reports, and examines 'net discretionary annual appropriations' for DHS--a perspective on the net impact of legislation funding DHS on congressionally tracked budget totals."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Painter, William L.
2020-01-03
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Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania: Background and U.S.-Baltic Relations [Updated January 2, 2020]
From the Summary: "Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, often referred to as the Baltic states, are close U.S. allies and considered among the most pro-U.S. countries in Europe. Strong U.S. relations with these three states are rooted in history. The United States never recognized the Soviet Union's forcible incorporation of the Baltic states in 1940, and it applauded the restoration of their independence in 1991. These policies were backed by Congress on a bipartisan basis. The United States supported the Baltic states' accession to NATO and the European Union (EU) in 2004. Especially since Russia's 2014 invasion of Ukraine, potential threats posed to the Baltic states by Russia have been a primary driver of increased U.S. and congressional interest in the region. Congressional interest in the Baltic states has focused largely on defense cooperation and security assistance for the purposes of deterring potential Russian aggression and countering hybrid threats, such as disinformation campaigns and cyberattacks. Energy security is another main area of U.S. and congressional interest in the Baltic region."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mix, Derek E.
2020-01-02
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Russia's Nuclear Weapons: Doctrine, Forces, and Modernization [Updated January 2, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report [...] is divided into five sections. The first section describes Russia's nuclear strategy and focuses on ways in which that strategy differs from that of the Soviet Union. The second section provides a historical overview of the Soviet Union's nuclear force structure. The third section details Russia's current force structure, including its long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM), and heavy bombers and shorter-range nonstrategic nuclear weapons. This section also highlights key elements of relevant infrastructure, including early warning, command and control, production, testing, and warhead storage. It also describes the key modernization programs that Russia is pursuing to maintain and, in some cases, expand its nuclear arsenal. The fourth section focuses on how arms control has affected the size and structure of Russia's nuclear forces. The fifth section discusses several potential issues for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2020-01-02
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Defense Primer: Special Operations Forces [Updated January 2, 2020]
From the Overview: "Special Operations Forces (SOF) are those active duty and reserve component forces of the military services designated by the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) and specifically selected, organized, trained, and equipped to conduct and support special operations. Special operations frequently require unique modes of employment, tactics, techniques, procedures, and equipment. They are often conducted in hostile, politically, and/or diplomatically sensitive environments, and are characterized by one or more of the following: time-sensitivity, clandestine or covert nature, low visibility, work with or through indigenous forces, greater requirements for regional orientation and cultural expertise, and a high degree of risk."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Torreon, Barbara Salazar; Feickert, Andrew
2020-01-02
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Defense Primer: Organization of U.S. Ground Forces [Updated January 2, 2020]
From the Document: "The Army and Marine Corps are organized as hierarchies of units, with each type of unit commanded by a noncommissioned or commissioned officer of a specific rank. These units are described from smallest to largest."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Torreon, Barbara Salazar; Feickert, Andrew
2020-01-02
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Unfunded Mandates Reform Act: History, Impact, and Issues [Updated January 2, 2020]
From the Summary: "The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (UMRA) culminated years of effort by state and local government officials and business interests to control, if not eliminate, the imposition of unfunded intergovernmental and private-sector federal mandates. Advocates argued the statute was needed to forestall federal legislation and regulations that imposed obligations on state and local governments or businesses that resulted in higher costs and inefficiencies. Opponents argued that federal mandates may be necessary to achieve national objectives in areas where voluntary action by state and local governments and business failed to achieve desired results. UMRA provides a framework for the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to estimate the direct costs of mandates in legislative proposals to state and local governments and to the private sector, and for issuing agencies to estimate the direct costs of mandates in proposed regulations to regulated entities. Aside from these informational requirements, UMRA controls the imposition of mandates only through a procedural mechanism allowing Congress to decline to consider unfunded intergovernmental mandates in proposed legislation if they are estimated to cost more than specified threshold amounts. UMRA applies to any provision in legislation, statute, or regulation that would impose an enforceable duty upon state and local governments or the private sector."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dilger, Robert Jay, 1954-; Beth, Richard S.
2020-01-02
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U.S. Withdrawal from the INF Treaty: What's Next? [Updated January 2, 2020]
From the Document: "On August 2, 2019, the United States withdrew from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. The United States withdrew from the treaty in response to Russia's deployment of an INF-range ground-launched cruise missile, which violated the treaty's ban on missiles with a range between 500 and 5,500 kilometers. [...] President Trump first indicated that the United States would withdraw from INF on October 20, 2018. He not only cited Russia's violation, but also argued that the United States is at a disadvantage with respect to China because the latter is not bound by the treaty's limits. On December 4, 2018, after a meeting of NATO's foreign ministers, Secretary of State Pompeo declared that Russia was in material breach of the treaty and announced that the United States would suspend its obligations, effective in 60 days, 'unless Russia returns to full and verifiable compliance.' This 60-day period ended on February 2, 2019."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2020-01-02
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FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act: P.L. 116-92 (H.R. 2500, S. 1790) [January 2, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report provides an overview of the FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 2500, S. 1790, P.L. 116-92) and serves as a portal to other CRS [Congressional Research Service] products providing additional context, detail, and analysis concerning particular aspects of that legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Towell, Pat
2020-01-02
