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Budget Reconciliation Process and the Statutory Limit on the Debt [Updated November 15, 2021]
From the Document: "The budget reconciliation process [hyperlink] is an optional, expedited legislative process provided under the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, as amended (P.L. [Public Law] 93-344; the Budget Act). It consists of several different stages, beginning with the adoption of the budget resolution. The purpose of the reconciliation process is to allow Congress to use special procedures when considering legislation that would bring existing budgetary laws into compliance with the fiscal policies that Congress establishes in the annual budget resolution. If Congress intends to use this process, reconciliation directives (also referred to as reconciliation instructions) must be included in the annual budget resolution. These directives trigger the second stage of the process by instructing individual committees to develop and report legislation that would change laws within their respective jurisdictions related to direct spending, revenue, or the debt limit. Once a specified committee develops legislation in response to a reconciliation directive, that legislation is eligible to be considered under expedited procedures in both the House and the Senate. These procedures are especially important in the Senate, as they include a 20-hour limit on debate time and therefore mean that reconciliation legislation does not require the support of three-fifths of all Senators to bring debate to a close."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lynch, Megan Suzanne; Saturno, James
2021-11-15
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Russian Military Intelligence: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated November 15, 2021]
From the Summary: "Following Russia's occupation of Ukraine's Crimea region and invasion of eastern Ukraine in 2014, many observers have linked Russia to additional malicious acts abroad. U.S. and European officials and analysts have accused Russia of, among other things, interfering in U.S. elections in 2016; attempting a coup in Montenegro in 2016; conducting cyberattacks against the World Anti-Doping Agency and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2016 and 2018, respectively; attempting to assassinate Russian intelligence defector Sergei Skripal in the United Kingdom in 2018; and offering 'bounties' to Taliban-linked fighters to attack U.S. personnel in Afghanistan. Implicated in all these activities is Russia's military intelligence agency, the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GU), also known as the GRU. [...] Congress and the executive branch continue to consider responses and countermeasures to malicious Russian activities. Because the GRU continues to conduct cyberattacks, election interference, assassinations, and disinformation, understanding the agency's structure and the position it occupies in Russian foreign and security policy can help identify what the GRU is capable of and why it conducts particular operations. Understanding the GRU also offers insight into Russia's wider use of cyber, disinformation, and influence operations and can inform broader discussions of potential U.S. responses and countermeasures. This report addresses Russian military intelligence, including organizational structure and activities, and related U.S. policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bowen, Andrew S.
2021-11-15
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Hindu Holidays: Fact Sheet [Updated November 15, 2021]
From the Introduction: "Hinduism (or Sanatana Dharma) is the third-largest religion in the world behind Christianity and Islam, with nearly 1 billion adherents. According to the Pew Research Center, about 0.7% of Americans self-identify as Hindu. Originating on the Indian subcontinent, it is often described as a combination of many religious beliefs and philosophical schools. 'Hindu' originated as the term used by ancient Persians to describe the people who lived beyond the Indus River Valley (in Sanskrit, 'Sindhu'). The term 'Hinduism' began to be more widely used by devotees on the Indian subcontinent and throughout the world by the end of the 19th century. This fact sheet is designed to assist congressional offices with work related to Hindu holidays. It contains sample speeches and remarks from the 'Congressional Record,' presidential proclamations and remarks, and selected historical and cultural resources. This is part of a series of Congressional Research Service fact sheets on religious holidays in the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mahendra, Sundeep; Leubsdorf, Ben
2021-11-15
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Iraq and U.S. Policy [Updated November 12, 2021]
From the Document: "Iraq held a national election on October 10, 2021, with voters selecting 329 members for the unicameral legislature, the Council of Representatives (COR). The COR elects Iraq's president and approves the prime minister's program and cabinet nominees. The election results will inform negotiations among political groups to identify the new COR's 'largest bloc,' which nominates the prime minister. The largest bloc may or may not include the coalition or party that won the most COR seats. Past government formation talks have taken months to resolve. [...] For the United States, the election result could reduce the formal influence of Iran-aligned groups who seek to revise or rescind plans for a continued U.S. military advisory presence in Iraq after December 31, 2021. However, Iraqi analysts expect a compromise coalition government to emerge that includes or reflects the interests of Iran-backed groups alongside their more electorally successful rivals. Such a government could lower the risk of political violence, but also may make systemic reforms less likely."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2021-11-12
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What's in the New U.S.-EU Steel and Aluminum Deal? [November 12, 2021]
From the Document: "On October 31, 2021, the United States [hyperlink] and European Union [hyperlink] (EU) announced a multifaceted agreement [hyperlink] to address U.S. steel and aluminum tariffs on EU exports, imposed by the Trump Administration under Section 232, and EU retaliatory tariffs on certain U.S. exports. The deal establishes a new tariff rate quota (TRQ) to replace original Section 232 tariffs. It also creates a new forum to strengthen U.S.-EU cooperation to address global overcapacity, ensure market-oriented conditions, and reduce carbon intensity in these industries. In addressing the tariffs, President Biden sought [hyperlink] to decrease trade tensions with allies, build partnerships to tackle global issues, and protect U.S. jobs and industry from unfair competition, stemming from China's excess capacity and industrial policies. [...] The full impact of the deal will take time to emerge; it goes into effect in January 2022, and the new Global Arrangement may not be finalized for two years. Potential areas of congressional interest and oversight may include the impact of the tariff elimination and TRQ system on U.S. industry and bilateral trade, the joint efforts to tackle China-driven global overcapacity, and the Biden Administration's announced consultations with Japan [hyperlink] and the United Kingdom [hyperlink] on the tariffs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2021-11-12
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Department of Defense (DOD) Budget: An Orientation [November 12, 2021]
From the Summary: "This report uses the FY2022 budget request for the Department of Defense (DOD) to provide a general orientation to the composition and activities of that agency. The report divides the budget request into sections that largely correspond to the major divisions (or 'titles') of the annual defense authorization and appropriations bills. Using DOD budget data, the report identifies several categories of activity funded within each of those parts of the budget and--in some cases--provides more specific, selected examples. The report is not designed to provide detailed analysis of elements of the budget request, but it incorporates cross-references to many CRS products intended for that purpose."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Towell, Pat
2021-11-12
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Defense Primer: Strategic Nuclear Forces [Updated November 12, 2021]
From the Document: "Since the early 1960s the United States has maintained a 'triad' of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles. These include long-range land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), long-range submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and long-range heavy bombers equipped to carry nuclear-armed cruise missiles and nuclear-armed gravity bombs. The number of nuclear warheads carried on these delivery vehicles peaked in the late 1980s, at around 14,000 warheads. It has been declining ever since, both as the United States complies with limits in U.S.-Russian arms control agreements and as it has changed requirements after the Cold War. As of February 2018, the United States had reduced its forces to comply with the New START Treaty [Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty], which entered into force in early 2011. 'Table 1' displays the U.S. forces that count under the treaty limits, as of September 1, 2020. These forces fall below the treaty limits of 1,550 deployed warheads on 700 deployed missiles due to maintenance schedules and operational requirements. An update released in March 2021 indicated that the United States had 1,357 warheads deployed on 651 missiles and bombers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2021-11-12
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Congressional Review Act (CRA): Frequently Asked Questions [Updated November 12, 2021]
From the Summary: "The Congressional Review Act (CRA) is a tool that Congress may use to overturn rules issued by federal agencies. The CRA was included as part of the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act (SBREFA), which was signed into law on March 29, 1996. The CRA requires agencies to report on their rulemaking activities to Congress and provides Congress with a special set of procedures under which to consider legislation to overturn those rules. Under the CRA, before a rule can take effect, an agency must submit a report to each house of Congress and the comptroller general containing a copy of the rule; a concise general statement describing the rule, including whether it is a major rule; and the proposed effective date of the rule. After receiving the report, Members of Congress have specified time periods during which they must submit and act on a joint resolution of disapproval to take advantage of the CRA's special 'fast track' procedures. If both houses pass the resolution, it is sent to the President for signature or veto. If the President were to veto the resolution, Congress could vote to override the veto. If a joint resolution of disapproval is submitted within the CRA-specified deadline, passed by Congress, and signed by the President, the CRA states that the disapproved rule 'shall not take effect (or continue).' The rule would be deemed not to have had any effect at any time, and even provisions that had become effective would be retroactively negated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Carey, Maeve P.; Davis, Christopher M., 1966-
2021-11-12
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Build Back Better Act, Universal Comprehensive Paid Leave Benefit Formula (As in November 3 Text), and State-Level Distribution of Workers: In Brief [November 12, 2021]
From the Document: "On November 3, 2021, the House Rules Committee released text of a modified version of H.R. 5376, commonly referred to as the Build Back Better Act (BBBA). Title XIII, Subtitle A, of the act (titled 'Universal Comprehensive Paid Leave') proposes a new federal cash benefit for eligible individuals engaged in certain types of family and medical caregiving. The November 3 text modifies a similar paid leave benefit program proposed in an earlier version of H.R. 5376 that was introduced on September 27, 2021. This report describes the weekly benefit formula for qualified caregiving as included in the November 3, 2021, version of the BBBA. The weekly benefit formula has a progressive structure (i.e., it is designed to replace a larger share of earnings for individuals with lower earnings and a smaller share of earnings for those with higher earnings)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Donovan, Sarah A.; Huston, Barry F.
2021-11-12
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Climate Change, Slow-Onset Disasters, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency [Updated November 12, 2021]
From the Document: "The United States is already experiencing [hyperlink] certain effects of climate change, including high temperature extremes and heavy precipitation events [hyperlink]. The U.S. Global Change Research Program, among many other bodies, expects [hyperlink] these trends to continue and intensify, likely resulting in more severe and frequent 'slow-onset [hyperlink]' events (e.g., drought; sea level rise), compound disasters [hyperlink] (e.g., extreme rainfall combined with coastal flooding), and cascading [hyperlink] events (e.g., landslides following wildfires). Such events may not have clearly defined start or end dates, and cumulative damage may not be immediately apparent. Congress may consider how these events affect the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which administers federal disaster relief authorized under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act [hyperlink] (Stafford Act, P.L. [Public Law] 93-288, as amended). Although FEMA does not have an explicit mission to address climate change, the agency is increasing its activities [hyperlink] related to nationwide adaptation to some of its effects [hyperlink], including extreme weather events. This Insight highlights issues FEMA may face when activating the Stafford Act for slow-onset events endemic to a changing climate. Slow-onset disasters are not mentioned or defined in the Stafford Act, FEMA's regulations, or guidance, nor are they included in existing emergency or major disaster definitions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Horn, Diane P.; Lee, Erica A.; Webster, Elizabeth M.
2021-11-12
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Department of Veterans Affairs FY2022 Appropriations [November 12, 2021]
From the Summary: "The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) administers numerous programs that provide benefits and services to eligible veterans and their families. These benefits include medical care; disability compensation and pensions; education; vocational rehabilitation and employment services; assistance to homeless veterans; home loan guarantees; administration of life insurance, as well as traumatic injury protection insurance for servicemembers; and death benefits that cover burial expenses. President Joe Biden submitted his formal budget proposal for FY2022 on May 28, 2021. The Administration requested $268.41 billion for VA. This amount included $155.44 billion in mandatory funding and $112.97 billion in discretionary funding--a 10.38% increase compared with the $243.16 billion enacted in FY2021 (excluding FY2021 funding provided in the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, P.L. 117-2). The President's budget also proposed using a Recurring Expenses Transformational Fund, established by the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016 (P.L. 114-113), to transfer $820 million of unobligated balances at the end of FY2021 to supplement the discretionary budget request for FY2022. In addition, the budget request included an advance appropriation request of $267.87 billion for FY2023 to fund the seven advance appropriations accounts: compensation and pensions, readjustment benefits, insurance and indemnities, medical services, medical community care, medical support and compliance, and medical facilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Panangala, Sidath Viranga; Sussman, Jared S.; Salazar, Heather M.
2021-11-12
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Survey of House and Senate Committee Rules on Subpoenas [Updated November 12, 2021]
From the Introduction: "House and Senate rules provide committees and subcommittees authority to subpoena witnesses and documents. Committees' subpoena power is defined thus: 'The authority granted to committees by the rules of their respective houses to issue legal orders requiring individuals to appear and testify, or to produce documents pertinent to the committee's functions, or both.' Most committees have adopted rules containing procedures for exercising this power. [...] This report begins with an explanation of how to analyze committees' subpoena rules. The report then first surveys House committees' subpoena rules, followed by a survey of Senate committees' subpoena rules. Both surveys begin with a brief description of chamber rules, followed by a short summary of that chamber's committees' rules that are ancillary to committee subpoena authorization procedures or appear in only one or two committees' rules. The surveys each include a table that compares the chamber's committees' rules on authorizing and issuing subpoenas, with table notes adding further detail."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Koempel, Michael L.; Hudiburg, Jane A.
2021-11-12
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United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA): Background and U.S. Funding [November 10, 2021]
From the Background: "Established in 1969, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) is the primary U.N. entity addressing population issues. Its overall goal is to ensure reproductive rights for all, including access to sexual and reproductive health services such as voluntary family planning. Headquartered in New York City, UNFPA operates in over 150 countries and supports more than 3,000 staff. It is funded by voluntary contributions from governments and other donors, with expenses totaling $1.29 billion in 2020."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchfield, Luisa; Collins-Chase, Edward J.; Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-
2021-11-10
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Stablecoins: Background and Policy Issues [November 10, 2021]
From the Document: "Stablecoins are digital assets generally designed to maintain a stable value by linking the value to a national currency or other reference assets. The term 'stablecoin' does not affirm that a particular coin actually achieves a stable value. Some consider terms such as 'private asset-linked tokens' as better descriptors considering the nature of the instruments. The top four stablecoins by value (Tether, USD Coin, Binance USD, and Dai) reached around $128 billion in market capitalization as of November 10, 2021, according to CoinMarketCap. Many stablecoins have different operational structures and reserve compositions ('Figure 1'). Reserve assets backing stablecoins could include fiat currencies, traditional financial assets, or other digital assets and algorithms. Many stablecoins at the current stage of development are primarily used for payments functions to facilitate digital asset trading and lending. Although stablecoins represent a small fraction (5%) of the digital asset industry's total value, they facilitate more than 75% of trading on all digital asset trading platforms as of October 31, 2021. Stablecoin-related policy concerns include issues related to market integrity, investor protection, financial stability, monetary policy, payments, and illicit activity prevention. [...] Stablecoins have attracted discussions regarding potential fraud and manipulation and the need for disclosure and transparency. [...] In response to the rapidly developing conditions, the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) added stablecoins to its November 2021 meeting agenda, and the President's Working Group on Financial Markets (PWG) published a report on stablecoins in November 2021."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Su, Eva
2021-11-10
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Global Economic Effects of COVID-19 [Updated November 10, 2021]
From the Summary: "The COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] viral pandemic is an unprecedented global phenomenon that is also a highly personal experience with wide-ranging effects. On September 20, 2021, U.S. viral deaths surpassed the 675,446 total from the 1918 Spanish flu, the previously worst U.S. pandemic-related death total on record. The pandemic has disrupted lives across all countries and communities and negatively affected global economic growth in 2020 beyond anything experienced in nearly a century. Estimates indicate the virus reduced global economic growth in 2020 to an annualized rate of around -3.2%, with a recovery of 5.9% projected for 2021. Global trade is estimated to have fallen by 5.3% in 2020, but is projected to grow by 8.0% in 2021. According to a consensus of forecasts, the economic downturn in 2020 was not as negative as initially estimated, due in part to the fiscal and monetary policies governments adopted in 2020. In most countries, economic growth fell sharply in the second quarter of 2020, rebounded quickly in the third quarter, and has been mostly positive since. Although lessening, the total global economic effects continue to mount."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-; Nelson, Rebecca M.; Weiss, Martin A. . . .
2021-11-10
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Emerging Military Technologies: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated November 10, 2021]
From the Summary: "This report provides an overview of selected emerging military technologies in the United States, China, and Russia: [1] artificial intelligence, [2] lethal autonomous weapons, [3] hypersonic weapons, [4] directed energy weapons, [5] biotechnology, and [6] quantum technology. It also discusses relevant initiatives within international institutions to monitor or regulate these technologies, considers the potential implications of emerging military technologies for warfighting, and outlines associated issues for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sayler, Kelley M.
2021-11-10
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Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): COVID-19 Emergency Temporary Standards (ETS) on Health Care Employment and Vaccinations and Testing for Large Employers [Updated November 10, 2021]
From the Summary: "On June 21, 2021, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) promulgated an Emergency Temporary Standard (ETS) for the prevention of the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2], the virus that causes COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] in health care employment settings. On November 5, 2021, OSHA promulgated an additional ETS that requires employers with 100 or more employees to require that all employees either be fully vaccinated against COVID-19 by January 4, 2022, or test negative for COVID-19 weekly in order to work onsite. On November 6, 2021, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ordered a stay on the OSHA COVID-19 vaccination and testing ETS pending additional judicial review. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act) gives OSHA the ability to promulgate an ETS that would remain in effect for up to six months without going through the normal review and comment process of rulemaking. OSHA, however, has rarely used this authority in the past--not since the courts struck down its ETS on asbestos in 1983. The OSHA COVID-19 ETS for health care employers requires health care employers to develop COVID-19 plans and protect employees from COVID-19 exposure through health screenings, personal protective equipment (PPE), building ventilation, and physical distancing and barriers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Szymendera, Scott
2021-11-10
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Clearing the Air on the Debt Limit [Updated November 10, 2021]
From the Summary: "As Congress considers how to reconcile rising federal debt levels and the debt limit, discussions about the role of the debt limit among Members of Congress, researchers, and the media promise to become more frequent. During debt limit episodes in the last decade, misleading or inaccurate claims have, at times, surfaced. This report clarifies five issues commonly raised in debt limit debates and explores some open questions. Some of those points in need of clarification relate to the congressional power of the purse, which stems from three closely related constitutional provisions that charge Congress with deciding how the federal government spends, taxes, and borrows. The Bipartisan Budget Act of 2019 (BBA 2019; P.L. 116-37), enacted in August 2019, had suspended the debt limit through July 31, 2021. The limit was then raised to just over $28.4 trillion to accommodate debt accumulated during the suspension, as specified in BBA 2019. The statutory debt limit represents one way that Congress has exerted control over federal borrowing and debt, as it has since the beginning of the U.S. government--despite claims that limits on debt began in 1917. Before 1917, Congress typically specified the interest rates, maturities, call options, and other aspects of debt issuances. The Second Liberty Bond Act of 1917 (P.L. 65-43, 40 Stat. 288) marked a turning point in federal debt policy. The modern debt limit--meaning an overall limit on federal debt without sublimits--was established in 1939."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Austin, D. Andrew; Stiff, Sean M.
2021-11-10
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FY2022 NDAA: Budgetary Context [November 10, 2021]
From the Document: "Congressional consideration of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2022 (NDAA; H.R. 4350 and S. 2792) occurs as federal spending is projected to continue to exceed revenues. This trend raises questions about whether pressure to reduce the federal deficit may affect defense budget plans. In July 2021, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) projected [hyperlink] a federal deficit of $3.0 trillion for FY2021, or 13.4% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). That percentage would be the second-highest since 1945. CBO attributed the size of the projected deficit in part to 'the economic disruption caused by the 2020-2021 coronavirus pandemic and the legislation enacted in response.' CBO projects spending will continue to exceed revenues over the next decade ('Figure 1'). From FY2022 to FY2031, CBO projects discretionary defense outlays will increase 23% and nondefense discretionary outlays 6%, while mandatory outlays will increase 40% and net interest payments on the national debt 198%."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McGarry, Brendan W.; Lynch, Megan Suzanne
2021-11-10
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Defense Primer: Senior Reserve Officer Training Corps [Updated November 9, 2021]
From the Document: "The Senior Reserve Officer Training Corps (SROTC)--more commonly referred to as the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC)--is an officer training and scholarship program for postsecondary students authorized under Chapter 103 of Title 10 of the United States Code. By enrolling in ROTC, students can pursue an undergraduate degree while also training to become U.S. military officers. The military departments -- Army, Air Force, and Navy -- manage their own ROTC programs, which are hosted at civilian universities and colleges. The Navy ROTC program includes a Marine Corps option and the Air Force program allows for commissions to the Space Force. The Coast Guard, part of the Department of Homeland Security, does not have an ROTC program, but does offer a College Student Pre-Commissioning Initiative (CSPI) that awards scholarships to students at minority-serving institutions and placement in the Coast Guard Officer Candidate School. The military departments provide scholarships and other forms of financial assistance to participating students. In return, students commit to accept an appointment as an officer in the U.S. military upon graduation. The ROTC program is the largest single source of commissioned officers, producing more than 6,000 officers annually (see 'Figure 1'). Other major commissioning sources include service academies (the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Military Academy, and the U.S. Air Force Academy); Officer Candidate/Training Schools; and direct appointment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kamarck, Kristy N.
2021-11-09
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Cocaine: Crack and Powder Sentencing Disparities [November 9, 2021]
From the Document: "Cocaine is a stimulant drug, usually distributed in a powder form that can be snorted or injected after being dissolved in water. It can also appear in a more solid, chunk form, known as cocaine base or crack, which can be smoked. Whether consumed in powder or crack form, cocaine produces the same type of physiological and psychotropic effects; however, the route of administration affects the onset, duration, and intensity of these effects. The maximum psychotropic effects take longer to reach when snorting powder cocaine versus either injecting powder cocaine or smoking crack cocaine, but the effects last longer. [...] The Controlled Substances Act (CSA; enacted in 1970) is the legal framework through which the federal government regulates certain drugs that are deemed to pose a risk of abuse and dependence, including powder and crack cocaine. Some violations of the CSA are criminal offenses that may result in large fines and long prison sentences. The CSA as enacted did not distinguish between powder and crack cocaine; however, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 amended the CSA to impose mandatory minimum sentences for certain trafficking-related offenses involving cocaine. While these minimum sentences applied to both powder and crack cocaine, the amount of each substance required to trigger the mandatory minimum varied by a ratio of 100:1."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sacco, Lisa N.; Finklea, Kristin
2021-11-09
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EU Climate Action and U.S.-EU Relations [Updated November 9, 2021]
From the Document: "The European Union (EU) has played a leading role on international climate action for decades. It worked closely with the United States to negotiate the 2015 Paris Agreement (PA) to combat greenhouse gas (GHG)-induced climate change. Since 2019, the EU has raised its domestic climate ambitions further and, in doing so, has sought to be a global standard-setter. The EU welcomed President Biden's decision to rejoin the PA (reversing the U.S. withdrawal carried out by the former Trump Administration). Both EU and Biden Administration officials repeatedly assert the importance of U.S.-EU cooperation in tackling climate challenges. The 117th Congress may compare EU climate action policies with Biden Administration plans and may assess prospects for and challenges to U.S.-EU cooperation on climate change mitigation efforts in the years ahead."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Leggett, Jane A.; Procita, Kezee
2021-11-09
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Line 5 Pipeline: Replacement/Tunnel Project [November 9, 2021]
From the Document: "The Line 5 Pipeline is a 30-inch, 645-mile pipeline owned by Enbridge [hyperlink] carrying up to 540,000 barrels per day of crude oil and natural gas liquids from Superior, WI, to Sarnia, Ontario ('Figure 1'). A key segment of Line 5 is an underwater crossing at the Straits of Mackinac--between Michigan's upper and lower peninsulas--where the pipeline runs for approximately four miles across the lakebed. This crossing has been an environmental concern due to the risk it poses of a 'worst case' oil spill [hyperlink] into the Great Lakes. Under the terms of various state agreements, Enbridge plans to replace this pipeline segment with a new one constructed through a tunnel beneath the lakebed--which requires federal approval. Enbridge continues operating the existing pipeline in the meantime. However, the state of Michigan has ordered Line 5 to shut down. Whether the pipeline should continue operating in its current configuration, and whether the federal government should grant a tunnel permit for a replacement crossing, have been the subject of litigation, federal oversight, and a U.S.-Canada treaty dispute."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parfomak, Paul W.
2021-11-09
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Money Laundering in the U.S. Real Estate Sector [November 9, 2021]
From the Document: "Money laundering and other financial crimes in the real estate sector take many forms and continue to challenge real estate professionals, financial institutions, policymakers, law enforcement authorities, and regulatory stakeholders. Domestic and international scrutiny of the real estate market's vulnerability to money laundering has grown in recent years. An issue Congress may consider is how to balance the money laundering risks posed by the real estate sector against differing views on how to implement appropriate oversight. According to various sources, real estate money laundering (REML) schemes can involve a wide range of conventional domestic criminals, as well as transnational criminals, including drug cartels and human traffickers, international terrorists, and foreign kleptocrats (corrupt high-level officials). The purchase of real estate, often combined with methods to conceal a purchaser's identity and source of funds, can allow criminals to integrate ill-gotten proceeds into the legal economy or park illicit wealth abroad. Real estate transactions may intersect with banks and other financial institutions that are subject to anti-money laundering (AML) and countering the financing of terrorism (CFT) requirements. Some critics posit that current AML/CFT practices may not effectively deter REML. The U.S. Department of the Treasury's 2018 'National Money Laundering Risk Assessment' identified five key risks and vulnerabilities within the U.S. real estate sector: [1] transactions involving luxury residential real estate; [2] real estate transactions involving opaque entities; [3] all-cash transactions that do not involve mortgage lenders; [4] real estate transactions based on falsified loan application information; and [5] complicit professionals in the real estate industry."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rosen, Liana W.; Miller, Rena S.
2021-11-09
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Veterans Day Speech Resources: Fact Sheet [Updated November 9, 2021]
From the Introduction: "Veterans Day is a federal holiday honoring people who have served in the U.S. Armed Forces. It is recognized annually on November 11. This fact sheet is designed to assist congressional offices with work related to celebrating Veterans Day. It contains a brief history, selected CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports, sample speeches and recognitions, presidential proclamations, and statistical data. It also contains links to additional web resources from authoritative sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sidor, Gary
2021-11-09
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Defense Primer: Department of Defense Unfunded Priorities [November 9, 2021]
From the Introduction: "Department of Defense (DOD) unfunded priorities generally refer to reports submitted to Congress pursuant to 'United States Code' provisions (10 U.S.C. §222a and 10 U.S.C. §222b) listing military programs, activities, or mission requirements that were not included in the President's annual budget request but that the department would fund with additional appropriations. The highest-ranking officers of the U.S. military services, combatant commands (COCOMs), and Missile Defense Agency (MDA) submit the reports, which are sometimes called unfunded priorities lists or unfunded requirements. Some observers have described DOD unfunded priorities as 'wish lists' that reduce budget discipline and increase unnecessary spending. Others have described them as 'risk lists' that identify items intended to support strategic objectives. For FY2022, DOD identified $23.85 billion in unfunded priorities, according to CRS [Congressional Research Service] analysis of the documents. Congress is debating whether to increase funding in FY2022 defense authorization and appropriation legislation, in part to fund DOD unfunded priorities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Trujillo, Maureen; McGarry, Brendan W.
2021-11-09
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Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [Updated November 8, 2021]
From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McInnis, Kathleen J.
2021-11-08
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Military's COVID-19 Vaccination Mandate [Updated November 8, 2021]
From the Document: "SECDEF [Secretary of Defense] issued a memorandum on August 24, 2021, directing the Secretaries of the Military Departments (MILDEPs) to 'immediately begin full vaccination of all members of the Armed Forces under DoD authority on active duty or in the Ready Reserve, including the National Guard, who are not fully vaccinated against COVID-19.' This Insight summarizes the COVID-19 vaccination mandate for servicemembers and offers considerations for Congress as the MILDEPs implement the mandate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mendez, Bryce H. P.
2021-11-08
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Lebanon [Updated November 8, 2021]
From the Document: "Lebanon, a country of 5.5 million people, faces the worst economic crisis in its history amid ongoing political unrest, the spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), and in the aftermath of an August 2020 explosion that severely damaged the port of Beirut and surrounding areas. Lebanon hosts the largest number of refugees in the world per capita (over 1 million, mostly Syrians), which has raised social tensions and strained public services. U.S. policy has focused on countering the influence of Iran and Hezbollah and on bolstering the Lebanese state while calling for reforms to counter corruption and mismanagement. Lebanon's leaders have warned that the country's economic crisis could lead to a collapse of state institutions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-11-08
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SBA Disaster Loan Interest Rates: Overview and Policy Options [November 8, 2021]
From the Summary: "This report opens with an overview of the SBA [Small Business Administration] Disaster Loan Program's financing, followed by the history of SBA disaster loan interest rate policy and the statutory formulas that determine these rates. It also provides a more general overview of the SBA Disaster Loan Program and summarizes congressional debates over the extent to which the cost of these loans should be borne by borrowers or taxpayers. This report concludes with an assessment of various legislative options currently under consideration and the extent to which the SBA can administratively adjust disaster loan interest rates."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lindsay, Bruce R.; Getter, Darryl E.; Nagel, Jared C. . . .
2021-11-08
