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Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview [Updated March 19, 2020]
From the Document: "Since the early 1960s, when the United States imposed a trade embargo on Cuba, the centerpiece of U.S. policy toward Cuba has consisted of economic sanctions aimed at isolating the government. [...] President Trump unveiled a new policy toward Cuba in 2017, introducing new sanctions and rolling back some of the Obama Administration's efforts to normalize relations. By 2019, the Trump Administration had largely abandoned engagement by increasing economic sanctions significantly to pressure the Cuban government on its human rights record and its support for the regime of Nicolás Maduro in Venezuela. It took actions to allow lawsuits against those trafficking in property confiscated by the Cuban government and tightened restrictions on travel to Cuba, including terminating cruise ship travel from the United States and U.S. flights to Cuban cities other than Havana."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2020-03-19
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Defense Primer: Department of Defense Maintenance Depots [March 19, 2020]
From the Document: "Title 10, United States Code (U.S.C.) §2464 states that it is 'essential for the national defense that the Department of Defense maintain a core logistics capability that is government-owned and government-operated [GOGO]... to ensure a ready and controlled source of technical competence and resources necessary to ensure effective and timely response to a mobilization, national defense contingency situations, and other emergency requirements.' Accordingly, each military service owns and operates industrial facilities that manufacture, maintain, repair, and overhaul military weapons and equipment. These GOGO facilities, together with certain government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) facilities are collectively referred to as the organic industrial base, or OIB. Included in the OIB are several large-scale maintenance facilities (otherwise named depots, shipyards, production plants, logistics complexes, or readiness centers) owned by each service that are dedicated to performing depot-level maintenance and repair (collectively the 'maintenance depots'). In addition, the Air Force and Navy utilize several 'centers' that perform weapon systems support in the forms of research, development, test and evaluation (RDT&E), acquisition, and sustainment activities including depot-level maintenance and repair. This InFocus pertains to those selected large-scale maintenance facilities that maintain, repair, or overhaul end items (See GAO-17-82R)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Herrera, G. James
2020-03-19
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From Clickwrap to RAP Sheet: Criminal Liability Under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act for Terms of Service Violations [March 19, 2020]
From the Document: "ToS [terms of service] agreements are now so prevalent that, at least according to some empirical studies, users generally do not read them. That is perhaps unsurprising given that ToS agreements are often lengthy, covering everything from the number of authorized users of a product to the types of content that may be shared through a device or service. But providers of computer and internet products and services rely on ToS for a variety of purposes, including limiting liability, protecting proprietary data, and preventing their products or services from being used in a harassing, threatening, or abusive manner. Against this backdrop, federal courts have diverged on the issue of whether an individual may--under certain circumstances--be criminally liable under federal law for ToS violations. The judicial disagreement stems from two conflicting interpretations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), 18 U.S.C. § 1030--a civil and criminal cybersecurity law prohibiting certain computer-related activities. Federal appellate courts are divided on when an individual who violates a ToS agreement runs afoul of the CFAA and is subject to liability under the statute. This Sidebar begins with background on the relevant provisions of the CFAA, before examining the split among the federal appellate courts over when, if ever, the CFAA imposes criminal liability for violations of ToS agreements. The Sidebar concludes with some considerations for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Berris, Peter G.
2020-03-19
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Global Economic Effects of COVID-19: In Brief [Updated March 18, 2020]
From the Overview: "Since the World Health Organization (WHO) first declared Covid-19 a world health emergency in January 2020, the virus has been detected in over 150 countries and almost all U.S. states. The infection has sickened more than 200,000 people, with thousands of fatalities. On March 11, the WHO announced that the outbreak was officially a pandemic, the highest level of health emergency. During that time, it has become clear that the outbreak is negatively impacting global economic growth. The virus is affecting a broad swath of economic activities, from tourism, medical supplies and other global value chains, consumer electronics, and financial markets to energy, food, and a range of social activities, to name a few. Without a clear understanding of when the health and economic effects may peak economic forecasts must necessarily be considered preliminary. Efforts to reduce social interaction to contain the spread of the virus are disrupting the daily lives of most Americans."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-; Schwarzenberg, Andres B.; Weiss, Martin A. . . .
2020-03-18
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China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress [Updated March 18, 2020]
From the Summary: "In an era of renewed great power competition, China's military modernization effort, including its naval modernization effort, has become the top focus of U.S. defense planning and budgeting. China's navy, which China has been steadily modernizing for more than 25 years, since the early to mid-1990s, has become a formidable military force within China's near-seas region, and it is conducting a growing number of operations in more-distant waters, including the broader waters of the Western Pacific, the Indian Ocean, and waters around Europe. China's navy is viewed as posing a major challenge to the U.S. Navy's ability to achieve and maintain wartime control of blue-water ocean areas in the Western Pacific--the first such challenge the U.S. Navy has faced since the end of the Cold War--and forms a key element of a Chinese challenge to the longstanding status of the United States as the leading military power in the Western Pacific."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-03-18
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COVID-19 Medical Countermeasures: Intellectual Property and Affordability [March 18, 2020]
From the Document: "Federal agencies and private industry have begun efforts to develop and test medical countermeasures (such as antiviral treatments and vaccines) to combat COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019], the disease caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]. [...] This Sidebar reviews several intellectual property (IP) rights provisions under current law that the federal government could use to try to ensure that COVID-19 countermeasures are accessible and affordable. Other actions that the federal government might hypothetically take--such as additional spending, production by federal agencies, governmental negotiation, or direct price controls--are beyond the scope of this Sidebar, in that such measures do not implicate IP rights and may require additional legislative action beyond the 'current law' referenced in CPRSA [Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act]."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hickey, Kevin J.
2020-03-18
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COVID-19 and Stimulus Payments to Individuals: How the 2009 Economic Recovery Payment Worked [March 18, 2020]
From the Document: "In response to concerns about an economic slowdown due to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, some lawmakers have expressed interest in providing direct cash payments to Americans. One option to provide such payments would be to establish a new advanced refundable tax credit, as was done in 2008 with 'recovery rebates.' Although this option would disburse payments to the vast majority of Americans relatively quickly, it would not directly help those who do not file a federal income tax return. A 2017 study found that 'nonfilers' were more likely to be seniors or recipients of public assistance than those who filed a tax return. To provide direct cash payments to nonfilers, lawmakers could consider providing such payments through existing programs for certain vulnerable populations. To assist lawmakers in assessing the merits of such a proposal, this Insight examines the 2009 Economic Recovery Payment (ERP), which was a one-time $250 payment made to most individuals who received recurring cash benefits from the Social Security Administration (SSA), the Railroad Retirement Board (RRB), or the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morton, William R.
2020-03-18
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Palestinians and Amendments to the Anti-Terrorism Act: U.S. Aid and Personal Jurisdiction [March 18, 2020]
From the Introduction and Issues for Congress: "This report provides background information and analysis on two amendments to the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2331 et seq.): the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (ATCA, P.L. 115-253), which became law in October 2018; and the Promoting Security and Justice for Victims of Terrorism Act of 2019 (PSJVTA, § 903 of P.L. 116-94), which became law in December 2019. The report focuses on the impact of this legislation on the following key issues: [1] U.S. aid to the Palestinians. [2] Whether federal courts have personal jurisdiction over the Palestinian Authority (PA) and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) for terrorism-related offenses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim; Elsea, Jennifer K.
2020-03-18
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Overview of Initial Responses to COVID-19 by the Administrative Office of U.S. Courts and by Select Courts Within the Federal Judiciary [March 18, 2020]
From the Document: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Insight provides information related to initial responses to Coronavirus disease 2019, or COVID-19, by the Administrative Office of U.S. Courts and select courts within the federal judiciary. Consequently, this Insight is not intended to provide a comprehensive overview of the policies and practices adopted by each federal court or judicial entity. Additionally, given the rapidly changing situation surrounding COVID-19, the information provided in this Insight may be superseded by new information from that which is described in the text below. If there are any questions regarding whether such changes have occurred, congressional staff may contact the author of this Insight. Congressional staff may also contact the author for information related to responses to COVID-19 by other federal judicial entities or courts not specifically addressed below."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McMillion, Barry J.
2020-03-18
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Hours of Service (HOS) Rule for Commercial Truck Drivers and the Electronic Logging Device (ELD) Mandate [March 18, 2020]
From the Summary: "In response to the COVID [coronavirus disease]-19 outbreak, on March 13, 2020, the Department of Transportation (DOT) issued a national emergency declaration to exempt from the Hours of Service (HOS) rule through April 12, 2020, commercial drivers providing direct assistance in support of relief efforts related to the virus. This includes transport of certain supplies and equipment, as well as personnel. Drivers are still required to have at least 10 consecutive hours off duty (eight hours if transporting passengers) before returning to duty."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Peterman, David Randall
2020-03-18
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Domestic Public Health Response to COVID-19: Current Status and Resources Guide
From the Document: "The global outbreak of Coronavirus Disease 2019, COVID-19, is affecting communities throughout the United States, with case counts growing daily. Containment and mitigation efforts by federal, state, and local governments have been undertaken to 'flatten the curve'--that is, to curb widespread transmission that could overwhelm the nation's health care system. This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Insight presents selected international and U.S. government actions and related events, CRS products, and federal websites relevant to the 'domestic public health response' to COVID-19. As the situation evolves, CRS will continue to publish and update products relevant to the current needs of Congress. This Insight will be updated accordingly. This Insight does not provide information on the international response to COVID-19, nor on economic or other non-health policy issues related to COVID-19. This Insight also does not address issues related to health insurance and financing."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sekar, Kavya; Cornell, Ada S.
2020-03-18
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Defense Production Act (DPA) and COVID-19: Key Authorities and Policy Considerations [Updated March 18, 2020]
From the Document: "As the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic evolves, the United States faces drug and medical supply scarcities due to disrupted supply chains and increased demand. In response, the President may exercise emergency authorities under the Defense Production Act of 1950 (DPA; 50 U.S.C. §§4501 et seq.) to address supply shortages and economic development impacts. During a press conference on March 18, 2020, the President indicated that he would invoke the DPA to address domestic essential goods and materials shortages caused by the pandemic. This Insight considers the various DPA authorities that may be used going forward and explores potential policy considerations for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Peters, Heidi M.; Cecire, Michael H.
2020-03-18
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Tax Cuts and Economic Stimulus: How Effective Are the Alternatives? [Updated March 18, 2020]
From the Summary: "The economic effects of the COVID [coronavirus disease]-19 pandemic may lead Congress to consider a general fiscal stimulus in the form of tax cuts. This report discusses tax cuts enacted during the previous recessions and their potential effectiveness."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gravelle, Jane
2020-03-18
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COVID-19: Current Travel Restrictions and Quarantine Measures [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "The United States, along with many countries, is responding to an outbreak of a respiratory disease, now referred to as COVID-19, which is caused by a novel coronavirus first detected in mainland China's Hubei Province in late 2019. Cases of COVID-19 have now been detected in several countries, including the United States. To date, the federal government has taken two key actions to deter persons with suspected COVID-19 infection from entering the country or spreading the virus to persons within the United States. First, the federal government has restricted the entry of many non-U.S. nationals (aliens) who recently have been physically present in mainland China, Iran, or much of Europe. Second, the federal government has imposed a quarantine requirement on all persons entering the United States, regardless of citizenship status, who have recently been to those areas. This Legal Sidebar examines the legal authorities underlying these actions, as well as possible legal challenges to their use."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Liu, Edward C.
2020-03-17
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Global Economic Effects of COVID-19: In Brief [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Overview: "Since the World Health Organization (WHO) first declared Covid-19 a world health emergency in January 2020, the virus has been detected in over 100 countries and almost all U.S. states. The infection has sickened more than 150,000 people, with fatalities. On March 11, the WHO announced that the outbreak was officially a pandemic, the highest level of health emergency. During that time, it has become clear that the outbreak is negatively impacting global economic growth. The virus is affecting a broad swath of economic activities, from tourism, medical supplies and other global value chains, consumer electronics, and financial markets to energy, food, and a range of social activities, to name a few. Without a clear understanding of when the effects may peak economic forecasts must necessarily be considered preliminary. Efforts to reduce social interaction to contain the spread of the virus are disrupting the daily lives of most Americans."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-; Schwarzenberg, Andres B.; Weiss, Martin A.
2020-03-17
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Multiyear Procurement (MYP) and Block Buy Contracting in Defense Acquisition: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report provides background information and issues for Congress on multiyear procurement (MYP) and block buy contracting (BBC), which are special contracting mechanisms that Congress permits the Department of Defense (DOD) to use for a limited number of defense acquisition programs. Compared to the standard or default approach of annual contracting, MYP and BBC have the potential for reducing weapon procurement costs by a few or several percent. Potential issues for Congress concerning MYP and BBC include whether to use MYP and BBC in the future more frequently, less frequently, or about as frequently as they are currently used; whether to create a permanent statute to govern the use of BBC, analogous to the permanent statute that governs the use of MYP; and whether the Coast Guard should begin making use of MYP and BBC. Congress's decisions on these issues could affect defense acquisition practices, defense funding requirements, and the defense industrial base."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-03-17
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Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency: Overview and Issues for Congress [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Summary: "The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), established in 1958, is an agency within the Department of Defense (DOD) responsible for catalyzing the development of technologies that maintain and advance the capabilities and technical superiority of the U.S. military. DARPA-funded research has made important science and technology contributions that have led to the development of both military and commercial technologies, such as precision guided missiles, stealth, the internet, and personal electronics. DARPA has a culture of risk-taking and tolerance for failure that has led experts, some Members of Congress, and others to view DARPA as a model for innovation both inside and outside of the federal government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallo, Marcy E.
2020-03-17
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Navy Ship Names: Background for Congress [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Summary: "Names for Navy ships traditionally have been chosen and announced by the Secretary of the Navy, under the direction of the President and in accordance with rules prescribed by Congress. Rules for giving certain types of names to certain types of Navy ships have evolved over time. There have been exceptions to the Navy's ship-naming rules, particularly for the purpose of naming a ship for a person when the rule for that type of ship would have called for it to be named for something else. Some observers have perceived a breakdown in, or corruption of, the rules for naming Navy ships. On July 13, 2012, the Navy submitted to Congress a 73-page report on the Navy's policies and practices for naming ships."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-03-17
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Hypersonic Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Introduction: "The United States has actively pursued the development of hypersonic weapons as a part of its conventional prompt global strike (CPGS) program since the early 2000s. In recent years, it has focused such efforts on hypersonic glide vehicles and hypersonic cruise missiles with shorter and intermediate ranges for use in regional conflicts. Although funding for these programs has been relatively restrained in the past, both the Pentagon and Congress have shown a growing interest in pursuing the development and near-term deployment of hypersonic systems. This is due, in part, to the growing interest in these technologies in Russia and China, leading to a heightened focus in the United States on the strategic threat posed by hypersonic flight. Open-source reporting indicates that both China and Russia have conducted numerous successful tests of hypersonic glide vehicles, and both are expected to field an operational capability as early as 2020. [...] The following report reviews the hypersonic weapons programs in the United States, Russia, and China, providing information on the programs and infrastructure in each nation, based on unclassified sources. It also provides a brief summary of the state of global hypersonic weapons research development. It concludes with a discussion of the issues that Congress might address as it considers DOD's funding requests for U.S. hypersonic technology programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sayler, Kelley M.
2020-03-17
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COVID-19 and Stimulus Payments to Individuals: Considerations on Using Advanced Refundable Credits as Economic Stimulus [March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "In response to concerns about an economic slowdown stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, policymakers have been considering a broad array of policy options. Some are targeted directly toward the individuals and industries that may be most affected. Others would more broadly seek to stimulate the economy. Among this latter category of policies, some have suggested a payroll tax cut, while others have proposed direct cash payments--'recovery rebates'--to virtually all households. One mechanism to provide cash payments relatively quickly is to create a new refundable tax credit and then advance it to households before they would otherwise claim it on their income tax returns. A similar policy was enacted most recently in 2008. This Insight addresses some common questions about advanced refundable tax credits."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Crandall-Hollick, Margot L.
2020-03-17
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What If the Philippines Ends the Visiting Forces Agreement? [March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "On February 10, 2020, the Government of the Philippines submitted to the U.S. Embassy in Manila a 'notice of termination' of the Philippines-U.S. Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA). The VFA governs the legal status of U.S. military forces operating in the Philippines and establishes rules by which U.S. troops, vessels and aircraft may enter the country. The notification started a 180-day review period; the agreement itself will expire at the end of that time. The VFA has been in effect since 1999, eight years after the Philippines rejected a treaty that would have extended the U.S. lease of Clark Air Base and Subic Bay Naval Base and ordered the withdrawal of all U.S. troops from the Philippines. The move raises uncertainties about the future of U.S.-Philippine military cooperation, an important part of the U.S. security posture in Asia. The Philippines is a U.S. treaty ally, and the termination of the VFA would not change that status. However, broad aspects of U.S.-Philippine cooperation, including military exercises and U.S. access to Philippine military facilities, could be made difficult or impossible without the legal protection of the VFA. This lack of cooperation could hinder U.S. initiatives to utilize the network of U.S. alliances in the region, to address tensions in the South China Sea, where the Philippines has long-standing disputes with China, and to conduct counterterrorism efforts in the southern Philippines. It also could affect U.S. humanitarian assistance and disaster relief missions throughout the region."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dolven, Ben; Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-
2020-03-17
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Defense Primer: Naval Forces [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "U.S. naval forces give the United States the ability to convert the world's oceans--a global commons that covers more than two-thirds of the planet's surface--into a medium of maneuver and operations for projecting U.S. power ashore and otherwise defending U.S. interests around the world. The ability to use the world's oceans in this manner--and to deny other countries the use of the world's oceans for taking actions against U.S. interests--constitutes an immense asymmetric advantage for the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-03-17
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Defense Primer: Department of the Navy [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "The Department of the Navy (DON) is a single military department that includes two military services--the Navy and the Marine Corps. As such, DON has a single civilian leader, the Secretary of the Navy, and two four-star military service chiefs--an admiral whose title is the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), and a general whose title is the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Although the title 'Secretary of the Navy' includes only the term 'Navy,' the secretary serves as the civilian leader for both the Navy and Marine Corps. The CNO and the Commandant of the Marine Corps are members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-03-17
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Defense Primer: Geography, Strategy, and U.S. Force Design [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "World geography is an influence on U.S. strategy, which in turn helps shape the design of U.S. military forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-03-17
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COVID-19: Social Insurance and Other Income-Support Options for Those Unable to Work [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Overview: "There is uncertainty about how the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) may spread in the United States; what measures federal, state, or local governments may take to mitigate the spread; and the possible effect on individual income security from both. This In Focus provides an overview of existing federal and state government social insurance programs or options that may be implemented relatively quickly to provide financial assistance for those unable to work due to COVID-19 from (1) their own illness; (2) exposure leading to quarantine; (3) illness of a close family member or school closures that may require long-term caregiving; or (4) unemployment resulting from business closures."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Haltzel, Laura; Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-; Morton, William R. . . .
2020-03-17
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United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM) [March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM), headquartered in Miami, FL, was officially established in 1963. Prior to that, U.S. military elements in the Western hemisphere had been organized under the U.S. Caribbean Defense Command. SOUTHCOM's area of responsibility (AOR) begins at the southern Mexican border and contains the remaining elements of Central and South America, adjacent Atlantic and Pacific waters, as well as the Caribbean Sea, ultimately encompassing 31 countries and 16 dependencies and areas of special sovereignty. The region represents about one-sixth of the landmass of the world assigned to regional unified commands. SOUTHCOM is led by U.S. Navy Admiral Craig S. Faller."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.
2020-03-17
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Tax Credit for Paid Sick and Family Leave in the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (H.R. 6201) (Updated) [Updated March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "The Families First Coronavirus Response Act (H.R. 6201) includes an employer tax credit for the paid sick and family leave required as part of this legislation. This tax credit is intended to cover the cost to businesses of providing paid leave to address the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. This Insight provides an overview of the tax credits, including the corrections included in H.Res. 904, as passed by the House on March 16, 2020."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sherlock, Molly F.
2020-03-17
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Unemployment Insurance: Legislative Issues in the 116th Congress [Updated March 16, 2020]
From the Document: "The 116th Congress has begun to consider benefits related to two unemployment insurance (UI) programs: Unemployment Compensation (UC) and Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA). Congress may consider modifications to these two programs within the federal-state UI system to provide weekly income replacement for individuals unavailable to work or unemployed as a result of COVID-19."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Whittaker, Julie M.; Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-
2020-03-16
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Tax Credit for Paid Sick and Family Leave in the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (H.R. 6201) [March 16, 2020]
From the Document: "The Families First Coronavirus Response Act (H.R. 6201) includes an employer tax credit for the paid sick and family leave required as part of this legislation. This tax credit is intended to help businesses with the cost of providing paid leave to address the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sherlock, Molly F.
2020-03-16
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Workplace Leave and Unemployment Insurance for Individuals Affected by COVID-19 [Updated March 16, 2020]
From the Document: "This Insight provides a brief overview of the current availability of job-connected assistance to individuals, which may be relevant to the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Specifically, this product discusses workplace leave, paid and unpaid, that may be available to workers affected by the virus, as well as unemployment insurance (UI) benefits. It also discusses policy options to amend or expand existing UI programs to be more responsive to the effects of COVID-19."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Whittaker, Julie M.; Donovan, Sarah A.; Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-
2020-03-16
