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• China-U.S. Relations: Current Issues for the 108th Congress [Updated January 11, 2005]

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  From the Document: "On December 29, 2004, China's official news agency, 'Xinhua,' announced that the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPC) had voted unanimously to consider an anti-secession law, aimed at Taiwan independence advocates, to the full NPC at its March 2005 legislative session. State media also reported that former Party Secretary Jiang Zemin in March 2005 will ask the NPC to accept his resignation as chair of the state Central Military Commission -- a largely symbolic position. Jiang stepped down from the power-wielding Party Central Military Commission in September 2004 On December 27, 2004, the PRC published its fifth white paper on national security: "China's National Defense in 2004." The paper said that the Taiwan independence movement was the biggest threat to China's sovereignty and regional peace, and it vowed to prevent Taiwan independence at all costs. The paper also said that strengthening China's naval warfare and air capabilities were military priorities. On December 11, 2004, in elections for Taiwan's legislature, voters returned the opposition, the Nationalist Party (KMT), to a majority despite a strong push by President Chen Shui-bian's party, the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). Observers believe that the DPP's failure to gain legislative control lessens the near-term chance of confrontation with Beijing. On December 3, 2004, in its biannual report on global foreign exchange, the U.S. Treasury Department did not find that China met the technical definition of currency manipulation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2005-01-11
• China-U.S. Relations: Current Issues for the 108th Congress [Updated September 15, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "The purpose of this report is to provide background for and summarize current developments in U.S.-PRC relations, including current and pending congressional actions involving the PRC. This report will be updated regularly as new developments occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2003-09-15
• Extradition Between the United States and Great Britain: The 2003 Treaty [Updated May 6, 2004]

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  From the Document: "Federal court denial of British extradition requests in the cases of four fugitives from Northern Ireland led to the Supplementary Extradition Treaty. The Treaty proved controversial and before the Senate would give its consent it insisted upon modifications, some quite unusual. Those modifications have been eliminated in a newly negotiated treaty which awaits Senate action and which incorporates features often more characteristic of contemporary extradition treaties with other countries. There has been criticism of the new Treaty's; exemptions to the political offense bar to extradition; elimination of judicial inquiry into politically motivated extradition request; treatment of probable cause; clause relating to extradition for crimes committed overseas; dropping the statute of limitations defense; discretionary authority for provisional arrest and detention; language relating to the seizure of assets; exceptions to the rule of specialty (permitting prosecution for crimes other than those for which extradition was granted); and retroactive application."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2004-05-06
• Iraq: Recent Developments in Reconstruction Assistance [Updated January 27, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "Large-scale reconstruction assistance programs are being undertaken by the United States following the war with Iraq. To fund such programs, Congress approved on April 12, 2003, a $2.48 billion Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund in the FY2003 Supplemental Appropriation. On November 6, 2003, the President signed into law P.L. 108-106, the FY2004 Emergency Supplemental Appropriation, providing $18.4 billion for Iraq reconstruction. Contributions pledged at the October 24, 2003, Madrid donor conference by other donors amounted to roughly $3.6 billion in grant aid and as much as $13.3 billion in possible loans. On June 28, 2004, the entity implementing assistance programs, the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), dissolved, and sovereignty was returned to Iraq. Security Council Resolution 1546 of June 8, 2004, returned control of assets held in the Development Fund for Iraq to the government of Iraq. U.S. assistance is now provided through the embassy of the United States under Ambassador John Negroponte. Many reconstruction efforts on the ground are underway, but security concerns have slowed progress considerably."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tarnoff, Curt

  2005-01-27
• U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2006 Request [Updated February 17, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "For policymakers, foreign assistance plays a key role in advancing U.S. foreign policy goals in the Middle East. The United States has a number of interests in the region, ranging from support for the state of Israel and Israel's peaceful relations with its Arab neighbors, to the protection of vital petroleum supplies and the fight against international terrorism. U.S. assistance helps to maintain the 1979 Camp David peace accords between Israel and Egypt and the continued stability of the Kingdom of Jordan, which signed its own peace treaty with Israel in 1994. U.S. funding also works to improve Palestinian civil society, and aid officials have worked to ensure that U.S. aid to the West Bank and Gaza Strip is not diverted to terrorist groups. Since the attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States has established new region-wide aid programs to promote democracy and encourage socio-economic reform in order to undercut the forces of radicalism in some Arab countries. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, "'A comprehensive U.S. strategy to counter terrorism should include economic policies that encourage development, more open societies, and opportunities for people to improve the lives of their families and to enhance prospects for their children's future.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2005-02-17
• Middle East Trade Initiatives: S. 1121/H.R. 2267 and the Administration's Plan [Updated April 26, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "On May 9, 2003, the Bush Administration proposed the establishment of a U.S. Middle East Free Trade Area (MEFTA) within a decade (by about 2013). This proposal came a year and a half after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the U.S. World Trade Center and the Pentagon. The MEFTA was billed as part of a plan to fight terrorism -- in this case, by supporting the growth of Middle East prosperity and democracy -- through trade. The MEFTA would cover 20 entities in what many refer to as the Middle East/North Africa -- 16 in the Middle East: Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, the Gaza Strip/West Bank, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen; and four in North Africa: Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. Since the Bush Administration first announced its trade initiative, it has made substantial progress in working with MEFTA entities to develop TIFAs, BITs, and FTAs and progress along the steps outlined above. Since the beginning of 2003: TIFAS have been completed with five countries: Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, bringing the total to 11. Other TIFA partners are Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. BITs have been completed with one country, Jordan, bringing the total to five. Other BIT partners are Bahrain, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia. Finally, bilateral free trade agreements have been implemented with Jordan, Israel, and Morocco. A signed FTA with Bahrain awaits consideration by Congress, which would raise the FTA total to four. In addition, on November 15, 2004, U.S. Trade Representative Robert B. Zoellick announced the Administration's intent to negotiate FTAs with the United Arab Emirates and Oman, as the 5th and 6th countries to have FTAs with the United States out of the 20 in MEFTA. This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bolle, Mary Jane

  2004-04-26
• Army Corps of Engineers Water Resources Activities: Authorization and Appropriations [Updated February 4, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "Congress authorizes and appropriates funds for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) to conduct water resources studies and projects for navigation, flood and storm protection, ecosystem restoration, and an array of other purposes. Congress authorizes Corps studies generally as part of the consideration of a Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) or in a survey resolution by an authorizing committee. Authorization to construct projects and changes to the policies guiding the Corps civil works program, such as cost-share requirements for projects, are also included in WRDAs. WRDAs are often considered biennially. Federal funding is provided for the civil works activities of the Corps primarily through the annual Energy and Water Development Appropriations Act; although not encouraged in some instances, these acts also have authorized Corps studies and construction. Due in part to competition for limited funding; many authorized activities do not receive appropriations, resulting in a backlog of authorized construction and maintenance activities. Few new studies and new construction activities have been included in the President's budget request in recent years. This report explains how the congressional authorization and appropriations process overlays the Corps' project development process."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hughes, H. Steven

  2005-02-04
• Post-War Iraq: A Table and Chronology of Foreign Contributions [Updated November 5, 2004]

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  "Securing foreign contributions to the reconstruction and stabilization of Iraq has been a major issue for U.S. policymakers since the launch of Operation Iraqi Freedom in March 2003. This report tracks important changes in financial and personnel pledges from foreign governments since the August 19, 2003 bombing of the U.N. Headquarters in Baghdad and major events since the fall of Baghdad on April 9, 2003. According to the latest estimates, foreign donors have pledged $13 billion in grants and loans for Iraq reconstruction, but have only disbursed around $1 billion to the United Nations and World Bank trust funds for Iraq. The largest non- American pledges of grants have come from Japan, the United Kingdom, Canada, South Korea, and the United Arab Emirates. The World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Japan, and Saudi Arabia have pledged the most loans and export credits. Although other coalition members have reaffirmed their commitment to providing security in Iraq since the Madrid bombings, continued violence and terrorist attacks both inside and outside Iraq may affect political will in troop-contributing countries to sustain their force presence. This report will be updated as needed to reflect the latest international developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2004-11-05
• Critical Infrastructure Protections: The 9/11 Commission Report and Congressional Response [Updated October 20, 2004]

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  "Many of the recommendations made in the 9/11 Commission's report deal indirectly with critical infrastructure protection, especially as the goals of critical infrastructure protection have evolved to include countering the type of attack that occurred on September 11. However, relatively few recommendations in the Commission's report address critical infrastructure protection specifically. These call for using a systematic risk management approach for setting priorities and allocating resources for critical infrastructure protection. The Commission discussed in more detail issues related to transportation security. However, none of these recommendations advocate a change in the direction of, or the organizational structures that have evolved to implement, existing infrastructure protection policies. Nevertheless, the Commission's recommendations could speed up implementation in some areas, given the attention and renewed urgency expressed by the Commission. This report will be updated as appropriate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moteff, John D.

  2004-10-20
• Iraq: Summary of U.S. Forces [Updated October 18, 2004]

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  "This report provides a summary estimate of military forces that have reportedly been deployed to and subsequently withdrawn from the U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) Area of Responsibility (AOR), popularly called the Persian Gulf region, to support Operation Iraqi Freedom. For background information on the AOR, see [http://www.centcom.mil/aboutus/aor.htm]. Geographically, the USCENTCOM AOR stretches from the Horn of Africa to Central Asia. The information about military units that have been deployed and withdrawn is based on both official government public statements and estimates identified in selected news accounts. The statistics have been assembled from both Department of Defense (DOD) sources and open-source press reports. However, due to concerns about operational security, DOD is not routinely reporting the composition, size, nor destination of units and military forces being deployed to the Persian Gulf. Consequently, not all has been officially confirmed. For further reading, see CRS Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations'. This report will be updated as the situation continues to develop."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Carter, Linwood B.

  2004-10-18
• Iraq: U.S. Policy Options [Updated December 23, 1998]

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  From the Summary: "In the aftermath of the December 16-19 U.S.-British bombing campaign against Iraq (Operation Desert Fox), the United States continues to search for a sustainable and effective means of ending the threat posed by Iraq. Many in Congress believe that U.S. policy should focus primarily on removing Saddam Husayn from power. The Administration says it is working toward that outcome but that achieving it will be difficult. According to the Administration, near term U.S. policy should focus primarily on preventing any restart of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs and on containing Iraq's ability to threaten its neighbors. This report will be updated to reflect regional, diplomatic, or legislative developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  1998-12-23
• Homeland Security: Compendium of Recommendations Relevant to House Committee Organization and Analysis of Considerations for the House [December 29, 2004]

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  "Commissions and think tanks studying homeland security have recommended congressional committee reorganization to increase Congress's policy and oversight coordination. This report analyzes selected recommendations. In the Homeland Security Act of 2002, Congress included a sense of the Congress resolution that each chamber should review its committee structure. This report identifies the definitions of homeland security included in the act. In the 108th Congress, the House created a Select Committee on Homeland Security, and charged it with studying the rules of the House with respect to the issue of homeland security. The select committee recommended a standing Committee on Homeland Security. This report digests the select committee's recommendations. Before the select committee made its recommendations, one of its subcommittees held four hearings on Perspectives on House Reform. To analyze the content of these hearings, this report organizes the testimony into 10 categories. The House has tended not to change its committee structure after executive branch reorganizations. This report contains a brief history of House committees. One consideration in creating a homeland security committee relates to the concentration or dispersal of homeland security jurisdiction. The House at different times has made different decisions about concentrating or dispersing jurisdiction. A second consideration in creating a homeland security committee relates to implications of jurisdictional changes. Proponents of a new committee point to the fragmentation of jurisdiction over homeland security. Others point to the record of Congress as a strong indication that existing committees are capable of action. A third consideration in creating a homeland security committee is whether such a committee is sufficient for policymaking. Even if a new committee is created, other committees will still have jurisdiction over components of homeland security."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Koempel, Michael L.

  2004-12-29
• Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) [Updated January 3, 2005]

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  "On May 28, 2004, the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua signed the U.S.-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). On August 5, 2004, the Dominican Republic, having completed separate negotiations with the United States, was added to the agreement in a subsequent signing by all parties. The new agreement was titled the Dominican Republic- Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement, or the DR-CAFTA. Since negotiations began in January 2003, it has been a complicated and controversial agreement, becoming more so in September 2004, when the Dominican Republic passed a revenue bill that included a 25% tax on beverages that contain high-fructose corn syrup. With this breech of the proposed DR-CAFTA, the USTR recommended that the Dominican Republic be excluded from the implementing legislation unless this tax is changed. Some Members of Congress have come out against this option."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)

  2005-01-03
• Interstate Travel: Constitutional Challenges to the Identification Requirement and Other Transportation Security Regulations [Updated December 21, 2004]

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  "Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, security measures in and around our nation's transportation facilities have dramatically increased. Nowhere has the increase been more noticeable than with respect to air transportation. New federal statutes and agency regulations have been implemented, each with the purpose of ensuring the safety and security of passengers, facilities, and workers of our national transportation systems. Not all of these security measures, however, have been publicly disclosed. In fact, pursuant to its statutory authority, the Transportation Security Agency (TSA) has issued a series of regulations relating to transportation security in which a majority of the information, including rules, orders, and directives has been classified as 'sensitive security information' (SSI), and thus, withheld from public scrutiny. For example, the regulation requiring that all passengers produce photo identification before being allowed to enter the airport gate area or board an aircraft, bus, or train has been classified as SSI, and consequently, cannot be disclosed to the general public. In addition, the standards utilized for creating, maintaining and requiring airlines to screen passengers against government-provided 'watch lists' and 'no-fly lists' do not appear to have been made publicly available."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tatelman, Todd

  2004-12-21
• Digital Surveillance: The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act [Updated December 29, 2004]

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  "The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, P.L. 103- 414, 47 USC 1001-1010), enacted October 25, 1994, is intended to preserve the ability of law enforcement officials to conduct electronic surveillance effectively and efficiently despite the deployment of new digital technologies and wireless services that have altered the character of electronic surveillance. CALEA requires telecommunications carriers to modify their equipment, facilities, and services, wherever reasonably achievable, to ensure that they are able to comply with authorized electronic surveillance actions. The FBI and other law enforcement agencies, the FCC, and Congress are all actively addressing CALEA-related concerns. On March 10, 2004, the FBI, the Department of Justice and the Drug Enforcement Administration petitioned the FCC to identify additional telecommunications services not identified specifically within CALEA that should be subject to it. In response to the petition and after considering the comments and replies from interested parties, the FCC released a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) and declaratory ruling on August 4, 2004. In the NPRM, the FCC drew a number of tentative conclusions regarding CALEA applicability; addressed compliance issues; and developed a proposal for implementation costs and time frame. Comments and replies to the NPRM were due November 8 and December 7, 2004, respectively. Accompanying the NPRM was a declaratory ruling in which the FCC clarifies that commercial wireless 'push-to-talk' services are subject to CALEA, regardless of the technologies that wireless providers choose to apply in offering them."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Figliola, Patricia Moloney

  2004-12-29
• Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004: National Standards for Drivers' Licenses, Social Security Cards, and Birth Certificates [January 6, 2005]

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  "In its comprehensive report to the nation, the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission) recommended that the federal government set national standards for the issuance of identification documents including drivers' licenses, social security cards, and birth certificates. The Commission noted that identification fraud is no longer simply a matter of theft, but now complicates the government's ability to adequately ensure public safety at vulnerable facilities including airport terminals, train stations, bus stations, and other entry points. The final legislation that was approved by Congress on December 8, 2004, and signed by the President on December 17, 2004, contained many of the provisions found in the Senate's original proposal with several significant additions from the House's proposed language. Many of the provisions that were considered controversial were not ultimately included, however, several Members indicated during the floor debate that these issues, specifically those that relate to drivers' licenses, would be revisited during the 109th Congress. In addition, because many of these provisions only delegate regulatory authority to federal agencies, several concerns that were raised during the legislation's deliberation, including access to birth certificates by genealogists or other historical researchers, are not specifically addressed by the statutory language, and will likely be the subject of agency action. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tatelman, Todd

  2005-01-06
• International Disasters and Humanitarian Assistance: U.S. Governmental Response [January 3, 2005]

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  "The President can provide emergency humanitarian assistance through several sources whose funding is authorized and appropriated by Congress. These are: funds appropriated to the Office of Foreign Disaster Administration (OFDA) in the Agency for International Development (USAID); U.S. Department of Agriculture food aid programs under P.L. 480 Food for Peace and section 416 (b) of the Agriculture Act of 1949; the State Department Emergency Refugee and Migration Account (ERMA) a contingency account which can contain as much as $100 million for assistance to refugees fleeing persecution; and funds appropriated to the Department of Defense, Overseas Humanitarian and Disaster and Civic Aid (OHDACA). These funds are also available for some non-emergency programs. In addition, the President has the authority to draw down defense equipment and direct military personnel to respond to disasters and provide space-available transportation on military aircraft and ships to private donors who wish to transport humanitarian goods and equipment in response to a disaster. Finally, the President can request other government agencies to assist within their capabilities. In FY2004 the United States contributed more than $2.4 billion to disaster relief worldwide."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda

  2005-01-03
• U.S. Military Overseas Basing: Background and Oversight Issues for Congress [November 17, 2004]

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  "On August 16, 2004, the Bush Administration announced a proposal to significantly alter the U.S. overseas military basing posture. The proposal would, if implemented, establish new overseas operating sites, and transfer up to 70,000 U.S. troops, plus 100,000 family members and civilians, from Europe and Asia back to the United States. The Administration argues that current U.S. global basing arrangements are a product of World War II and the Korean War. With the end of the Cold War, these basing arrangements need to be updated to ensure that U.S. forces are optimally positioned to respond to potential 21st-Century military threats. The Administration's proposal has received mixed reactions from non-DOD observers. A May 2004 Congressional Budget Office report raises questions concerning the potential cost effectiveness of changing the current Army overseas basing posture. The Administration's proposal raises several potential oversight issues for Congress. This report will be updated as necessary."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Klaus, Jon D.

  2004-11-17
• Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC): An Overview [Updated January 10, 2005]

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  "The Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) is an agreement among member states to provide assistance after disasters overwhelm a state's capacity to manage the consequences. The compact, initiated by the states and coordinated by the National Emergency Management Association, provides a structure for requesting emergency assistance from party states. EMAC also resolves some, but not all, potential legal and administrative obstacles that may hinder such assistance. EMAC also enhances state preparedness for terrorist attacks by ensuring the availability of resources for fast response and facilitating multi-state cooperation in training activities and preparedness exercises. Congress approved EMAC as an interstate compact in 1996 (P.L. 104-321). This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bea, Keith

  2005-01-10
• Senate Consideration of Treaties [Updated April 10, 2003]

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  "The consideration of treaties and nominations constitutes the executive business of the Senate. When the President submits a treaty to the Senate, the treaty and any supporting materials are referred to the Committee on Foreign Relations. Paragraph 3 of Senate Rule XXIX requires that all treaties and 'all remarks, votes, and proceedings thereon shall also be kept secret, until the Senate shall, by their resolution, take off the injunction of secrecy.' At the time the treaty is referred to committee, the Senate typically agrees by unanimous consent to remove the 'injunction of secrecy.' Treaties, unlike bills and other legislative measures, may remain before the Senate from one Congress to the next. Paragraph 2 of Rule XXX states in part that 'all proceedings on treaties shall terminate with the Congress, and they shall be resumed at the commencement of the next Congress as if no proceedings had previously been had thereon.' Thus, if the Foreign Relations Committee fails to report a treaty before the end of a Congress, the treaty remains on the committee calendar during the next Congress. If the committee has reported a treaty but the Senate has not completed floor consideration of it when the Congress ends, the treaty is recommitted to the committee, and the committee must report it again before the Senate may consider it on the floor."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rundquist, Paul S.; Bach, Stanley

  2003-04-10
• Steel: Price and Policy Issues [Updated October 31, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The rapid growth of steel production and demand in China is widely considered as a major cause of continued high steel prices and prices of steelmaking inputs. Steel companies have achieved much greater pricing power, in part through an ongoing consolidation of the industry. High prices persist, despite the revocation in 2003 of President Bush's broad safeguard order on imports. U.S. steel production in 2006 was 108 million tons. The integrated side of the industry continues to lose share domestically to the minimills. Imports rebounded in 2006 to reach the highest tonnage level ever, though they declined in 2007. Input prices, especially ferrous scrap and iron ore, remain high, meaning higher costs, which have been largely passed along to industrial consumers. China now produces 40% of the world's steel and is the world's largest steelmaker and steel consumer. This contributed to a large global increase in demand for both steel and steelmaking inputs. China has become a large net exporter as well. In 2006, its steel exports to the U.S. market more than doubled, and it became the second-largest import source. […] Internationally, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has abandoned the effort to achieve an international agreement to ban subsidies for steel mills. In April 2006 the World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body ruled against the 'zeroing' methodology used by the U.S. Commerce Department in calculating dumping margins."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cooney, Stephen

  2007-10-31
• Homeland Security: Federal Assistance Funding and Business Opportunities [Updated December 23, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "With the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and increased federal spending on homeland security products and services, comes increased interest in doing business with the federal government and obtaining federal funds. Small and large businesses, universities, and research organizations throughout the country want to provide the needed products and services. State and local governments desire federal funds to assist with their homeland security needs. Generally, the larger companies or organizations and state and local governments that have regularly done business with the federal government in the past are familiar with the often complex process of selling to the government or obtaining federal funds through grants. However, smaller companies and government officials who are new to the process may have a difficult time quickly identifying the resources and information needed to pursue grant or contract monies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Riehl, James R.

  2004-12-23
• Electric Reliability: Options for Electric Transmission Infrastructure Improvements [Updated December 23, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "The electric utility industry is inherently capital intensive. At the same time, the industry must operate under a changing and sometimes unpredictable regulatory system at both the federal and state level. The transmission system was developed to fit the regulatory framework established in the 1920 Federal Power Act: utilities served local customers in a monopoly service territory. The transmission system was not designed to handle large power transfers between utilities and regions. Enactment of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 created tension between the regulatory environment and existing transmission system: the competitive generation market encouraged wholesale, interstate power transfers across a system that was designed to protect local reliability, not bulk power transfers. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 introduced competition to wholesale electric transactions without a comprehensive plan to address reliability issues and the development of efficient wholesale markets. In addition, approximately half of the states have passed legislation or had regulatory orders to introduce retail competition, each with its own set of rules for utilities to follow. The blackout of 2003 in the Northeast, Midwest, and Canada has highlighted the need for infrastructure improvements and greater standardization of operating rules. Until the electric power industry reaches a new equilibrium with more regulatory certainty, many observers predict, investment in transmission infrastructure and technology will continue to be inadequate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Abel, Amy

  2004-12-23
• Underground Carbon Dioxide Storage: Freuently Asked Questions [October 24, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "This report answers frequently asked questions about the geologic storage of carbon dioxide (CO2). The questions are broadly representative of typical inquiries regarding the process and mechanics of storing CO2 underground, how much might be stored, and what might happen to CO2 once it is injected underground. Geologic storage is one step in a process termed 'carbon capture and storage', or CCS. Following capture and transportation, CO2 would be injected into geologic formations that have suitable volume, or pore space, to retain large quantities of the captured gas. Currently, the most promising reservoirs for storing CO2 are oil and gas fields, deep saline reservoirs, and unmineable coal seams. Preventing CO2 from escaping would require careful reservoir characterization. Knowledge gained from over 30 years of injecting CO2 underground to enhance oil recovery would be applied to storing CO2 for CCS purposes. Given the complexity of most geologic reservoirs, and the potentially huge volumes of CO2 that may be injected, risk of some CO2 leakage over time may never completely be eliminated. A variety of techniques are available for monitoring leaks from a reservoir; however, the long-term (hundreds to thousands of years) fate of CO2 stored underground is not thoroughly understood."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2007-10-24
• EU-U.S. Economic Ties: Framework, Scope, and Magnitude [Updated October 17, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The United States and the European Union (EU) economic relationship is the largest in the world -- and it is growing. The modern U.S.-European economic relationship has evolved since World War II, broadening as the six-member European Community expanded into the present 27-member European Union. The ties have also become more complex and interdependent, covering a growing number and type of trade and financial activities. […] It is a relationship that is likely to grow in importance assuming the trends toward globalization and the enlargement of the EU continue, forcing more trade and investment barriers to fall. Economists indicate that an expanded relationship would bring economic benefits to both sides in the form of wider choices of goods and services and greater investment opportunities. But increasing economic interdependence brings challenges as well as benefits. As the U.S. and EU economies continue to integrate, some sectors or firms will 'lose out' to increased competition and will resist the forces of change. Greater economic integration also challenges long-held notions of 'sovereignty,' as national or regional policies have extraterritorial impact. Similarly, accepted understanding of 'competition,' 'markets,' and other economic concepts are tested as national borders dissolve with closer integration of economies. U.S. and EU policymakers are likely to face the task of how to manage the increasingly complex bilateral economic relationship in ways that maximize benefits and keep frictions to a minimum. For Members of Congress it could mean weighing the benefits of greater economic integration against the costs to constituents in the context of overall U.S. national interests. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2007-10-17
• Taiwan in 2004: Elections, Referenda, and Other Democratic Challenges [Updated January 10, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "In a low voter turnout in legislative elections on December 11, 2004, the opposition Nationalist Party (KMT) increased its legislative majority against the ruling Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). This means that DPP President Chen Shui-bian, who was reelected to a second term on March 20, 2004, again will not be able to count on legislative support for his policies in his second and final term. In both the presidential and legislative election campaigns, Chen emphasized gaining a separate international identity for Taiwan -- an emphasis to which Beijing strenuously objected as dangerously close to declaring Taiwan independence from China. While Chen's strategy appeared to gain the DPP electoral momentum in March, it may have had the opposite electoral effect in December. In response to his party's defeat at the polls, Chen resigned as DPP party chair on December 15, 2004. He is expected to have to moderate his policies and move closer to the political center for the rest of his term in order to regain public support and in an effort to ensure legislative support for his economic and other policy initiatives. Any move to dial down pro-independence rhetoric could ease tensions with Beijing and the concerns of U.S. policymakers."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2005-01-10
• China's Currency: A Summary of the Economic Issues [Updated October 9, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Many Members of Congress charge that China's policy of accumulating foreign reserves (especially U.S. dollars) to influence the value of its currency constitutes a form of currency manipulation intended to make its exports cheaper and imports into China more expensive than they would be under free market conditions. They further contend that this policy has caused a surge in the U.S. trade deficit with China and has been a major factor in the loss of U.S. manufacturing jobs. Threats of possible congressional action led China to make changes to its currency policy in 2005, which has since resulted in a modest appreciation of the yuan. However, many Members have expressed dissatisfaction with the pace of China's currency reforms and have warned of potential legislative action. This report summarizes the main findings CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL32165, 'China's Currency: Economic Issues and Options for U.S. Trade Policy', by Wayne M. Morrison and Marc Labonte and will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morrison, Wayne M.; Labonte, Marc

  2007-10-09
• Health and Safety Concerns Over U.S. Imports of Chinese Products: An Overview [Updated October 23, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "China is the second largest source of U.S. imports, a major supplier of consumer products (such as toys), and an increasingly important supplier of various food products. Reports of unsafe seafood, pet food, toys, tires, and other products imported from China over the past year have raised concern in the United States over the health, safety, and quality of imported Chinese products. This report provides an overview of this issue and implications for U.S.-China trade relations and will be updated as events warrant. (For an overview of issues concerning U.S. food imports from China, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL34080, 'Food and Agricultural Imports from China', by Geoffrey S. Becker)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morrison, Wayne M.

  2007-10-23
• Iraq: U.S. Casualties [Updated October 4, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The following casualty data was compiled by the Department of Defense (DOD), as tallied from the agency's press releases. 'Table 1' provides statistics on fatalities during Operation Iraqi Freedom, which began on March 19, 2003, and is ongoing, as well as on the number of fatalities since May 1, 2003, plus statistics on those wounded, but not killed, since March 19, 2003. Statistics may be revised as circumstances are investigated and as all records are processed through the U.S. military's casualty system. More frequent updates are available at DOD's website at [http://www.defenselink.mil/ news/] under 'OIF/OEF [Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom] Casualty Update.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Bryant, JoAnne

  2007-10-04
• Europe and Counterterrorism: Strengthening Police and Judicial Cooperation [Updated October 15, 2004]

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  "The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and other crossborder crimes such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, and financial fraud. For many years, EU efforts to address such challenges were hampered by national sovereignty concerns, insufficient resources, and a lack of trust among law enforcement agencies. However, the terrorist attacks and the subsequent revelation of Al Qaeda cells in Europe changed this status quo as it became increasingly evident that the EU's open borders and different legal systems allowed terrorists and other criminals to move around easily and evade arrest and prosecution. Thus, EU officials renewed their efforts to harmonize national laws and bring down traditional barriers among member states' police, intelligence, and judicial authorities. As part of this initiative, the EU has also sought to enhance ongoing cooperation with U.S. law enforcement and judicial authorities so that information can be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Archick, Kristin

  2004-10-15