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• German Foreign and Security Policy: Trends and Transatlantic Implications [March 16, 2010]

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  "German Chancellor Angela Merkel began her first term in office in November 2005 and was elected to a second term in September 2009. Most observers agree that under her leadership, relations between the United States and Germany have improved markedly since reaching a low point in the lead-up to the Iraq war in 2003. U.S. officials and many Members of Congress view Germany as a key U.S. ally, have welcomed German leadership in Europe, and voiced expectations for increased U.S.-German cooperation on the international stage. German unification in 1990 and the end of the Cold War represented monumental shifts in the geopolitical realities that had defined German foreign policy. Germany was once again Europe's largest country, and the Soviet threat, which had served to unite West Germany with its prowestern neighbors and the United States, was no longer. Since the early 1990s, German leaders have been challenged to exercise a foreign policy grounded in a long-standing commitment to multilateralism and an aversion to military force while simultaneously seeking to assume the more proactive global role many argue is necessary to confront emerging security threats. Until 1994, Germany was constitutionally barred from deploying its armed forces abroad. Today, approximately 7,000 German troops are deployed in peacekeeping, stabilization, and reconstruction missions worldwide. However, as Germany's foreign and security policy continues to evolve, some experts perceive a widening gap between the global ambitions of Germany's political class, and a consistently skeptical German public."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belkin, Paul

  2010-03-16
• Former Presidents: Pensions, Office Allowances, and Other Federal Benefits [May 27, 2015]

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  "The Former Presidents Act (FPA; 3 U.S.C. §102 note) charges the General Services Administration (GSA) with providing former U.S. Presidents a pension, support staff, office support, travel funds, and mailing privileges. The FPA was enacted to 'maintain the dignity' of the Office of the President. The act provides the former President--and his or her spouse--certain benefits to help him respond to post-presidency mail and speaking requests, among other informal public duties often required of a former President. Prior to enactment of the FPA in 1958, former Presidents leaving office received no pension or other federal assistance. […] This report provides a legislative and cultural history of the Former Presidents Act. It details the benefits provided to former Presidents and their costs. Congress has the authority to reduce, increase, or maintain the pension and benefits provided to former Presidents of the United States. This report considers the potential effects of maintaining the FPA or amending the FPA in ways that might reduce or otherwise modify a former President's benefits."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ginsberg, Wendy R.; Richardson, Daniel J.

  2015-05-27
• High Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) and High Power Microwave (HPM) Devices: Threat Assessments [July 21, 2008]

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  "Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) is an instantaneous, intense energy field that can overload or disrupt at a distance numerous electrical systems and high technology microcircuits, which are especially sensitive to power surges. A large scale EMP effect can be produced by a single nuclear explosion detonated high in the atmosphere. This method is referred to as High-Altitude EMP (HEMP). A similar, smaller-scale EMP effect can be created using non-nuclear devices with powerful batteries or reactive chemicals. This method is called High Power Microwave (HPM). Several nations, including reported sponsors of terrorism, may currently have a capability to use EMP as a weapon for cyber warfare or cyber terrorism to disrupt communications and other parts of the U.S. critical infrastructure. Also, some equipment and weapons used by the U.S. military may be vulnerable to the effects of EMP. The threat of an EMP attack against the United States is hard to assess, but some observers indicate that it is growing along with worldwide access to newer technologies and the proliferation of nuclear weapons. In the past, the threat of mutually assured destruction provided a lasting deterrent against the exchange of multiple high-yield nuclear warheads. However, now even a single, low-yield nuclear explosion high above the United States, or over a battlefield, can produce a large-scale EMP effect that could result in a widespread loss of electronics, but no direct fatalities, and may not necessarily evoke a large nuclear retaliatory strike by the U.S. military."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wilson, Clay

  2008-07-21
• Water Infrastructure Funding in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 [January 11, 2010]

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  "The bill provides funding for locally built wastewater and drinking water treatment projects through assistance programs administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). For the EPA wastewater program, the enacted bill provides $4.0 billion. For the EPA drinking water program, P.L. 111-5 provides $2.0 billion in additional funds. These funds were allocated to states according to established formulas, and states will award actual assistance to projects and communities. For the USDA programs that benefit rural communities, the Recovery Act provides $1.38 billion in grants and loans; USDA state offices are making individual project decisions. Additional funding in the bill for these programs is three to four times more than the level of regular appropriations. The enacted legislation provides funding for water resources development and management projects administered by four agencies. It provides $4.6 billion for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) and $1.0 billion for the Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation). The legislation also provides $340 million for USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) agricultural watershed program, and $220 million for the Department of State's International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC) for levee and dam upgrades. Congress directed that the funds be used consistent with the eligibility and prioritization constraints and direction provided in P.L. 111-5 and the accompanying conference report, H.Rept. 111-16. Discretion regarding which specific water resource projects received funds was largely left up to the Administration."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia; Cody, Betsy A.; Stubbs, Megan

  2010-01-11
• Mail Service During the Early Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic

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  From the Objective: "Our objective was to evaluate mail service during the early stages of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) disease pandemic. [...] Our audit focused on two of the four goals: (1) sustaining essential services during times of significant absenteeism and (2) communicating guidance to stakeholders during a pandemic. To further assess the impact of the pandemic at a local level, we evaluated seven judgmentally selected processing and distribution centers (P&DC) and 14 delivery units."

  United States Postal Service. Office of Inspector General

  2021-01-04
• Pandemic Volume and Revenue Projected Scenarios

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  From the Objective: "The U.S. Postal Service develops a range of financial projections as part of its financial planning. A financial projection is an estimate or forecast of a future situation or trend based on a study of present and historical trends. The main projection the Postal Service completes is the annual financial plan, which estimates revenue, volume, and expenses for each fiscal year. The fiscal year (FY) 2020 plan was approved by the U.S. Postal Service Board of Governors in February 2020. On March 13, 2020, the President of the United States issued the national emergency declaration concerning the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic (pandemic). During the ongoing pandemic, the Postal Service has provided essential services as part of the nation's critical infrastructure by continuously processing and delivering mail and packages. The pandemic continues to have an unpredictable impact on the economy, the Postal Service, and Postal Service finances. Our objective was to evaluate the reasonableness of the Postal Service's projected financial scenarios as a result of the impact of the pandemic."

  United States Postal Service. Office of Inspector General

  2021-02-10
• HUD and Its CDBG-DR Grantees Have Experienced Challenges Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic

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  From the Introduction: "The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Office of Inspector General (OIG), has completed a survey of the impact of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on HUD's Community Development Block Grant Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR) grantees. Our objective was to determine the challenges that HUD and its CDBG-DR grantees are experiencing related to the COVID-19 pandemic and to help inform the Office of Community Planning and Development and Congress on the issues faced in responding to the pandemic."

  United States. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Office of Inspector General

  2021-03-23
• Department of Defense Appropriations for 2021, Part 1, Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, February 6, 2020, February 27, 2020, March 3, 2020, March 4, 2020, March 5, 2020, March 10, 2020, March 11, 2020, March 12, 2020

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  These are the February 6, 2020, February 27, 2020, March 3, 2020, March 4, 2020, March 5, 2020, March 10, 2020, March 11, 2020, and March 12, 2020 hearings on "Department of Defense Appropriations for 2021, Part 1," held before the U.S. House Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations. From the opening statement of Peter J. Visclosky: "The leadership of the Department of Defense has affirmed repeatedly that modernization of the strategic deterrent is the Department's number one priority. We know that effort will be costly. We also know that the Department has outlined an ambitious program to modernize our conventional forces to meet the needs of what is referred to as great power competition. While the administration appears to be fully committed to modernizing our nuclear systems, I must also stress my concern that the administration has not demonstrated the same commitment when it comes to arms control." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Charles A. Richard, Tod D. Wolters, Joseph L. Lengyel, Charles Luckey, Luke McCollum, David G. Bellon, Richard W. Scobee, Thomas B. Modly, Michael M. Gilday, David H. Berger, David D. Thompson, Clinton E. Crosier, R. Scott Dingle, Bruce L. Gillingham, Dorothy A. Hogg, Thomas McCaffery, Ronald Place, Bill Tinston, Craig S. Faller, Ryan D. McCarthy, James P. McConville, Kenneth F. McKenzie, Stephen Townsend, Roger Williams, McGovern, Richard Hudson, Brian Fitzpatrick, Thomas Suozzi, Glenn Thompson, Denny Heck, Jodey Arrington, Brad Wenstrup, Jennifer Gonzalez-Colon, and Sheila Jackson Lee.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2021
• Truth, Reconciliation, and Healing: Toward a Unified Future, Briefing of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, First Session, July 18, 2019

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  This is the July 18, 2019 briefing on "Truth, Reconciliation, and Healing: Toward a Unified Future," held before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. From the opening statement of Erika Schlager: "In March, at an event focused on the abuse and use of historical legacies for political purposes and the tensions this can produce, the OSCE [Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe] High Commissioner said, 'History and memory have always been sensitive issues, but it is increasingly apparent that there are very real security implications. Memory politics are part of identity politics, and we are witnessing firsthand how they can drive wedges between communities in countries across the world and be exploited by outside forces. Myths and memories are an integral part of ethnic and national identities that determine not only who we are, but where we are going.' Today we will attempt to discern what paths many of our societies are on by examining some recent efforts to address past atrocities and injustices, and what we can learn from those efforts." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Erika B. Schlager, Gail C. Christopher, Mischa E. Thompson, Stuart Eizenstat, Gwen Moore, Tracy Tansia Bibo, Benjamin L. Cardin, and Diane Orentlicher.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2021
• HUD's Use of, Accounting for, and Reporting on CARES Act Funding

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  From the Executive Summary: "In March 2020, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) received $12.4 billion as part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act). As part of the annual appropriation process, the U.S. House of Representatives' Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing, and Urban Development asked us to assess HUD's use of, accounting for, and reporting on of CARES Act funding. HUD's CARES Act funds have various expiration dates. More than $9.8 billion in funds expires on or before September 30, 2022. To balance speed with transparency, HUD must disburse these CARES Act funds, which meet crucial needs, in a timely manner; follow CARES Act reporting requirements; and take steps to ensure payment integrity. We also use this report to describe published and ongoing reviews related to our oversight of the CARES Act."

  United States. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Office of Inspector General

  2021-04-26
• Inconsistent Documentation and Management of COVID-19 Vaccinations for Community Living Center Residents

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  From the Document: "While reviewing the Veterans Health Administration's (VHA) plans to document receipt and distribution of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] vaccine, the Office of Inspector General (OIG) determined that VHA facilities did not consistently document the COVID-19 vaccination status of veterans living in VA's [Department of Veterans Affairs] community living centers (CLCs). This management advisory memorandum is meant to provide information to help VHA leaders determine if there is a need for additional national guidance or other remedial action before the OIG releases its full report on vaccine distribution."

  United States. Department of Veterans Affairs. Office of Inspector General

  2021-04-14
• DoD OIG COVID-19 Oversight Plan: 2021 Q2 Update

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  From the Introduction: "In March 2020, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) received more than $10.5 billion in appropriated FY 2020 funds in the Families First Coronavirus Response Act and the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act) to prevent, prepare for, and respond to the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, domestically and internationally. The DoD OIG coordinates across the DoD, the Federal oversight community, and with the Pandemic Response Accountability Committee (PRAC) to ensure its oversight related to the COVID-19 pandemic is responsive to the complex environment in which the DoD operates. [...] The DoD OIG encourages individuals to use its DoD Hotline to report concerns or complaints related to the DoD's pandemic-related supplemental funding. The DoD Hotline provides a confidential, reliable means to report fraud, waste, abuse, and other violations of law that involve DoD personnel or operations, without fear of reprisal. Through March 31, 2021, the DoD Hotline had received 925 complaints related to the DoD response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing continues to be the most frequently reported issue."

  United States. Department of Defense. Office of the Inspector General

  2021-03-31?
• Arms Control and Nonproliferation: A Catalog of Treaties and Agreements [February 2, 2010]

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  "Arms control and nonproliferation efforts are two of the tools that have occasionally been used to implement U.S. national security strategy. Although some believe these tools do little to restrain the behavior of U.S. adversaries, while doing too much to restrain U.S. military forces and operations, many other analysts see them as an effective means to promote transparency, ease military planning, limit forces, and protect against uncertainty and surprise. Arms control and nonproliferation efforts have produced formal treaties and agreements, informal arrangements, and cooperative threat reduction and monitoring mechanisms. The pace of implementation slowed, however, in the 1990s, and the Bush Administration usually preferred unilateral or ad hoc measures to formal treaties and agreements to address U.S. security concerns. But the Obama Administration has resumed bilateral negotiations with Russia and pledged its support for a number of multilateral arms control and nonproliferation efforts. The United States and Soviet Union began to sign agreements limiting their strategic offensive nuclear weapons in the early 1970s. Progress in negotiating and implementing these agreements was often slow, and subject to the tenor of the broader U.S.-Soviet relationship. As the Cold War drew to a close in the late 1980s, the pace of negotiations quickened, with the two sides signing treaties limiting intermediate range and long-range weapons. But progress again slowed in the 1990s, as U.S. missile defense plans and a range of other policy conflicts intervened in the U.S.- Russian relationship."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Kerr, Paul K.

  2010-02-02
• Final Evaluation Report: Evaluation of OPM's Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic

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  From the Executive Summary: "In January 2020, the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019, known as COVID-19, was declared a global public health emergency. The COVID-19 pandemic spread quickly across the United States, forcing cities to impose stay-at-home and shelter-in-place orders in March and April 2020. In June 2020, Representative Gerald E. Connolly, Chairman of the House Subcommittee on Government Operations, requested that we examine the plans and procedures of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) for returning employees to Federal offices during the coronavirus pandemic. As a result, we sought to determine whether OPM's plan for returning employees to its offices followed existing guidance and best practices to reduce the risk of employees' exposure to COVID-19."

  United States. Office of Personnel Management. Office of Inspector General

  2021-05-06
• SBA's Handling of Identity Theft in the COVID-19 Economic Injury Disaster Loan Program

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  From the Document: "The Office of Inspector General (OIG) is issuing this Evaluation report to notify Small Business Administration (SBA) officials of significant matters regarding its handling of complaints of identity theft in the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Economic Injury Disaster Loan (EIDL) program. [...] In this review, SBA examined the subcontractor system's notes in the loan file. Agency staff compared the possible victim's addresses and phone number to the application information using Google and LexisNexis. Agency staff also performed a public record search to confirm the existence of the business, often checking online information from the appropriate Secretary of State and county tax assessor."

  United States. Small Business Administration. Office of the Inspector General

  2021-05-06
• EPA Did Not Conduct Agencywide Risk Assessment of CARES Act Appropriations, Increasing Risk of Fraud, Waste, Abuse, and Mismanagement

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  From the Document: "In response to the coronavirus pandemic--that is, the SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2] virus and resultant COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] disease--the Office of Inspector General for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency initiated an evaluation under Project No. OA&E-FY20-0234 [hyperlink] of the Agency's internal controls for the emergency supplemental appropriations provided to the EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] in the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, known as the CARES Act. The objectives of this evaluation were to document and assess the internal controls that the EPA implemented to mitigate risks of fraud, waste, abuse, and mismanagement over the CARES Act appropriations."

  United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of the Inspector General

  2021-05-04
• Key Insights: COVID-19 in Correctional and Detention Facilities

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  From the Key Insights: "The Pandemic Response Accountability Committee's recent update to its Top Challenges for the Pandemic noted that while federal agencies have always prioritized health and safety, the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has created several unique challenges--such as limiting the transmission of the virus in correctional and detention facilities maintained and operated by the Departments of Justice, Homeland Security, and the Interior. This report summarizes oversight work from those Offices of Inspectors General related to the steps these federal agencies have taken to prevent the spread and mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on their staff and the individuals housed in federal correctional and detention facilities."

  Pandemic Response Accountability Committee

  2021-05-12
• Foreign Investment and National Security: Economic Considerations [February 8, 2010]

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  "The United States is the largest foreign direct investor in the world and also the largest recipient of foreign direct investment. This dual role means that globalization, or the spread of economic activity by firms across national borders, has become a prominent feature of the U.S. economy and that through direct investment the U.S. economy has become highly enmeshed with the broader global economy. This also means that the United States has important economic, political, and social interests at stake in the development of international policies regarding direct investment. With some exceptions for national security, the United States has established domestic policies that treat foreign investors no less favorably than U.S. firms. The terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, spurred some Members of Congress and others to call for a reexamination of elements of the traditionally open environment in the United States for foreign investment. In particular, some Members argue that greater consideration must be given to the long-term impact of foreign direct investment on the structure and the industrial capacity of the economy and on the ability of the economy to meet the needs of U.S. defense and security interests. […] This report assesses recent international developments as the leaders from a number of nations work to reach a consensus on an informal set of best practices regarding national restrictions on foreign investment for national security purposes. This report also provides one possible approach for assessing the costs and benefits involved in using national policies to direct or to restrict foreign direct investment for national security reasons. ."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2010-02-08
• Debt Limit: History and Recent Increases [February 16, 2010]

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  "A statutory limit has restricted total federal debt since 1917 when Congress passed the Second Liberty Bond Act. Congress has voted to raise the debt limit ten times since 2001. [...] A debt limit increase was included in the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 (H.R. 3221) and signed into law (P.L. 110-289) on July 30. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (H.R. 1424), signed into law on October 3 (P.L. 110-343), raised the debt limit again. The debt limit was increased for the third time in less than a year with the passage of American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 on February 13, 2009 (ARRA; H.R. 1), which was signed into law on February 17, 2009 (P.L. 111- 5), which raised the debt limit to $12,104 billion. The House's adoption of the conference report on the FY2010 budget resolution (S.Con.Res. 13) on April 29, 2009, triggered the automatic passage of H.J.Res. 45 to raise the debt limit to $13.029 trillion. In August 2009, Treasury reportedly said that the debt limit would be reached in mid-October, although the Treasury later stated that the limit would not be reached until mid or late December 2009. H.R. 4314, passed by the House on December 16, 2009, and by the Senate on December 24, raised the debt limit to $12.394 trillion when the President signed the measure (P.L. 111-123) on December 28. On January 28, the Senate passed an amended version of H.J.Res. 45, which the House passed on February 4 and the President signed on February 12."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Austin, D. Andrew; Levit, Mindy R.

  2010-02-16
• Foreign Science and Engineering Presence in U.S. Institutions and the Labor Force [January 25, 2010]

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  "The increased presence of foreign students in graduate science and engineering programs and in the scientific workforce has been and continues to be of concern to some in the scientific community. Enrollment of U.S. citizens in graduate science and engineering programs has not kept pace with that of foreign students in those programs. In addition to the number of foreign students in graduate science and engineering programs, a significant number of university faculty in the scientific disciplines are foreign, and foreign doctorates are employed in large numbers by industry. Few will dispute that U.S. universities and industry have chosen foreign talent to fill many positions. Foreign scientists and engineers serve the needs of industry at the doctorate level and also have been found to serve in major roles at the masters level. However, there are charges that U.S. workers are adversely affected by the entry of foreign scientists and engineers, who reportedly accept lower wages than U.S. citizens would accept in order to enter or remain in the United States. NSF [National Science Foundation] data reveal that in 2006, the foreign student population earned approximately 36.2% of the doctorate degrees in the sciences and approximately 63.6% of the doctorate degrees in engineering. In 2006, foreign students on temporary resident visas earned 32.0% of the doctorates in the sciences, and 58.6% of the doctorates in engineering. The participation rates in 2005 were 30.8% and 58.4%, respectively."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Matthews, Christine M.

  2010-01-25
• Immigration Policies and Issues on Health-Related Grounds for Exclusion [January 29, 2010]

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  "Under current law, foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa and submit to an inspection to be admitted. They must first meet a set of criteria specified in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) that determine whether they are eligible for admission. Moreover, they must also not be deemed inadmissible according to specified grounds in the INA. One of the reasons why a foreign national might be deemed inadmissible is on health-related grounds. The diseases that trigger inadmissibility in the INA are those communicable diseases of public health significance as determined by the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS). The outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 virus (commonly called 'Swine Flu') has generated attention in Congress and the media, particularly with its relationship to foreign travel. With Mexico also suffering high infection rates of this strain of influenza, questions have been raised on travel restrictions to the United States, particularly in regard to foreign nationals. Potential issues for Congress are three-fold: (1) are current health-related grounds for exclusion sufficient to ensure public safety in regards to contagious diseases; (2) would increased restrictions on foreign travel (even temporarily) inflict more economic harm than benefit; and (3) are the resources provided for frontline agencies charged with screening foreign travelers sufficient to identify potentially infected travelers?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Haddal, Chad C.

  2010-01-29
• Intelligence Authorization Legislation: Status and Challenges [January 27, 2010]

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  "Since FY2005, no annual intelligence authorization bill has been enacted. Although the National Security Act requires intelligence activities to be specifically authorized, this requirement has been satisfied in recent years by one-sentence catch-all provisions in defense appropriations acts authorizing intelligence activities. This procedure meets the statutory requirement but has, according to some observers, weakened the ability of Congress to oversee intelligence activities. Annual intelligence authorization acts were first passed in 1978 after the establishment of the two congressional intelligence committees and were enacted every year until 2005. These acts provided specific authorizations of intelligence activities and were accompanied by reports that provided detailed guidance to the nation's intelligence agencies. However, in practice, the absence of intelligence authorization acts has meant that key intelligence issues have been addressed in defense authorization acts and defense appropriations acts that focus primarily on the activities of the Department of Defense. Several Members have maintained that this procedure has been characterized by misplaced priorities and wasteful spending estimates that could run into billions. One example is the eventual cancellation of a highly classified and very costly overhead surveillance system that had been approved without support from the two intelligence committees."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2010-01-27
• Internet Domain Names: Background and Policy Issues [January 26, 2010]

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  "Navigating the Internet requires using addresses and corresponding names that identify the location of individual computers. The Domain Name System (DNS) is the distributed set of databases residing in computers around the world that contain address numbers mapped to corresponding domain names, making it possible to send and receive messages and to access information from computers anywhere on the Internet. The DNS is managed and operated by a not-for-profit public benefit corporation called the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Because the Internet evolved from a network infrastructure created by the Department of Defense, the U.S. government originally owned and operated (primarily through private contractors) the key components of network architecture that enable the domain name system to function. A 1998 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between ICANN and the Department of Commerce (DOC) initiated a process intended to transition technical DNS coordination and management functions to a private-sector not-for-profit entity. While the DOC has played no role in the internal governance or day-to-day operations of the DNS, ICANN remained accountable to the U.S. government through the MOU, which was superseded in 2006 by a Joint Project Agreement (JPA). On September 30, 2009, the JPA between ICANN and DOC expired and was replaced by an Affirmation of Commitments (AoC), which provides for review panels to periodically assess ICANN processes and activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kruger, Lennard G.

  2010-01-26
• Congress as a Consumer of Intelligence Information [January 28, 2010]

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  "This report examines the role of Congress as a consumer of national intelligence and examines several issues that Congress might address during the second session of the 111th Congress. The President, by virtue of his role as commander-in-chief and head of the executive branch, has access to all national intelligence collected, analyzed and produced by the Intelligence Community. By definition, the President, the Vice President, and certain Cabinet-level officials, have access to a greater overall volume of intelligence and to sensitive intelligence information than do members of the congressional intelligence committees. Moreover, since the intelligence agencies are part of the executive branch, the President has the authority to restrict the flow of intelligence information to Congress and its two intelligence committees. The Fort Hood Army base shootings in November 2009, followed later that year by the Christmas Day airline bombing plot and the Afghanistan suicide bombing that killed seven Central Intelligence Agency employees refocused congressional attention on a number of intelligence issues, including the role Congress plays as a consumer of intelligence. Each of these cases serves to underscore the sensitivity with which Congress views the executive branch's statutory obligation to keep the legislative branch fully and currently informed of all intelligence activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cumming, Alfred

  2010-01-28
• Overview of the Employment-Population Ratio [May 27, 2015]

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  "The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines the employment-population ratio as the ratio of total civilian employment to the civilian noninstitutional population. Simply put, it is the portion of the population that is employed. The ratio is used primarily as a measure of job holders and to track the pace of job creation, relative to the adult population, over time. The employment-population ratio has several properties that make it an attractive indicator for labor market analysis. It is easy to interpret and can be used to make meaningful comparisons across time and groups with dissimilar population size. Because it takes into account both the impacts of labor force participation and unemployment, it is a useful summary measure when those forces place countervailing pressures on employment. Like all labor market indicators, it has limits. For example, it does not distinguish between part-time and full-time employment, and it is silent on wages, benefits, and job conditions. Trends in the employment-population ratio also do not provide information about job flows (i.e., whether a drop in employment represents more people exiting employment or fewer new entrants). […] These patterns should be taken in the context of shifting demographics and other recent developments in the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Donovan, Sarah A.

  2015-05-27
• Paraguay: Political and Economic Conditions and U.S. Relations [February 1, 2010]

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  "The United States and Paraguay cooperate in a number of areas but especially in the fight against corruption, and on anti-drug, counterterrorism and anti-smuggling initiatives. In 2006 and 2009, the United States and Paraguay signed two Millennium Challenge Corporation threshold agreements totaling more than $60 million dollars to combat corruption and strengthen the rule of law. Paraguay is a major transit country for cocaine and produces the largest crop of marijuana in South America. The United States remains concerned about illegal activities in the loosely controlled tri-border region with neighboring Brazil and Argentina, such as money-laundering, drugs and arms trafficking, and trade in counterfeit and contraband goods. The 111th Congress has expressed growing interest in Paraguay. In April 2009, two bills were introduced entitled the 'U.S.-Paraguay Partnership Act of 2009' (H.R. 1837 and S. 780). On September 14, 2009, the ATPDEA Expansion and Extension Act of 2009 (S. 1665) was introduced in the Senate. Each of these bills would amend the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (Title XXXI of the Trade Act of 2002, P.L. 107-210) to extend unilateral trade preferences to Paraguay. Indicating additional interest in Paraguay, the House Democratic Partnership (formerly the House Democratic Assistance Commission) made a study trip to Paraguay in August 2009. Members of the eight-member delegation had discussions with the bicameral Congress and the executive about the need to work together to support democracy in Paraguay. This report examines recent political and economic developments in Paraguay and issues in U.S.- Paraguayan relations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Beittel, June S.

  2010-02-01
• El Salvador: Political, Economic, and Social Conditions and U.S. Relations [March 17, 2010]

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  "Throughout the last few decades, the United States has maintained a strong interest in El Salvador, a small Central American country with a population of 7.2 million. During the 1980s, El Salvador was the largest recipient of U.S. aid in Latin America as its government struggled against the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) insurgency during a 12-year civil war. A peace accord negotiated in 1992 brought the war to an end and formally assimilated the FMLN into the political process as a political party. After the peace accords were signed, U.S. involvement shifted toward helping the government rebuild democracy and implement marketfriendly economic reforms. Mauricio Funes of the FMLN was inaugurated to a five-year presidential term in June 2009. Funes won a close election in March 2009, marking the first FMLN presidential victory and the first transfer in political power between parties since the end of El Salvador's civil war. Funes' victory followed strong showings by the FMLN in the January 2009 municipal and legislative elections, in which the party won a plurality of the seats in the National Assembly and the largest share of the municipal vote."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-03-17
• Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): Background, Legislation, and Funding [January 5, 2010]

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  "The Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program was created by Title I of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-322). The mission of the COPS program is to advance community policing in all jurisdictions across the United States. The Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162) reauthorized the COPS program through FY2009 and changed the COPS program from a multi-grant program to a single-grant program. Several bills have been introduced in the 111th Congress that would modify the COPS program, reauthorize appropriations for the program, or both. Three of these bills--H.R. 1139, S. 167, and H.R. 1568--would reauthorize appropriations for the COPS program. In addition, H.R. 1139 and S. 167 would, among other things, change COPS from a single-grant to a multi-grant program and make the COPS Office an exclusive component of the Department of Justice (DOJ). H.R. 3154 and S. 1424 would require the Attorney General to award grants to units of local government with high violent crime rates so they could increase the size of their police forces. Appropriations for the COPS program were more than $1 billion for each of fiscal year (FY) FY1995-FY2002, with the exception of FY2000 ($595 million). Appropriations for the program decreased each fiscal year for FY2002-FY2006, increased for FY2007 and FY2008 and decreased for FY2009 before increasing again for FY2010. In addition to the annual appropriation for COPS included in the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009 (P.L. 111-8), Congress included a $1 billion appropriation for COPS hiring grants in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5). This report will be updated as warranted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  James, Nathan

  2010-01-05
• Foreign Investment, CFIUS, and Homeland Security: An Overview [February 4, 2010]

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  "The President is generally seen as exercising broad discretionary authority over developing and implementing U.S. direct investment policy, including the authority to suspend or block investments that 'threaten to impair the national security.' Congress is also directly involved in formulating the scope and direction of U.S. foreign investment policy, and some Members are urging the President to be more aggressive in blocking certain types of foreign investments. Such confrontations reflect vastly different philosophical and political views between members of Congress and between Congress and the Administration over the role foreign investment plays in the economy and the role that economic activities should play in the context of U.S. national security policy. In July 2007, Congress asserted its own role in making and conducting foreign investment policy when it adopted and the President signed P.L. 110-49, the Foreign Investment and National Security Act of 2007. This law broadens Congress's oversight role, and it explicitly includes the areas of homeland security and critical infrastructure as separately identifiable components of national security that the President must consider when evaluating the national security implications of a foreign investment transaction. The act may well draw Congress into a greater dialogue, and possibly greater conflict, with the Administration over efforts to define the limits of the broad rubric of national economic security."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2010-02-04
• War Bonds in the Second World War: A Model for a New Iraq/Afghanistan War Bond? [March 1, 2010]

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  "The high costs of fighting the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have rekindled congressional interest in the concept of the sale of a Treasury security to help finance these war costs. In the 111th Congress, three bills have been introduced that would permit the issuance of a war bond: S. 2846, H.R. 4315, and H.R. 4385. Although these bills are silent on any relationship between the proposed 'war bonds' and World War II-era war bonds, the question has been raised whether or not the issuance of war bonds during the Second World War serves as a good model for a new 'war bond.' […] Current economic and financial conditions differ from those of the early 1940s. During the Second World War, high inflation and over-employment prevailed. The federal government imposed price and wage controls, production controls, rationing, controls on the level of interest rates on Treasury securities, and regulations on installment loans. As mentioned previously, war bonds were marketed primarily to reduce consumer spending. Today, despite concern about a personal savings rate below historical norms, most federal officials are more concerned about raising consumer spending, because of high unemployment and inadequate aggregate demand. To date, no savings bond or any other Treasury security issue has ever had its funds earmarked for any specific purpose; rather, all funds raised have been placed in the general fund. In summary, the prior war bonds program in the Second World War is a problematic model for Iraq/Afghanistan 'war bonds.' This report will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bickley, James M.

  2010-03-01