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Rising Energy Competition and Energy Security in Northeast Asia: Issues for U.S. Policy [Updated May 13, 2008]
This CRS report addresses two critical global issues that have major policy implications for the United States-"rising energy competition and energy security in Northeast Asia." More specifically, "this report analyzes how China, Japan, and South Korea's pursuits to bolster their energy security impacts U.S. interests. It also examines decisions being made by Asian states now that will significantly shape global affairs in the future, how these decisions might play out, and how Congress and the executive branch might play a role in those decisions." Secondly, "China, Japan, and South Korea have been moving aggressively to shore up partnerships with existing suppliers and pursue new energy investments overseas, often downplaying doubts about the technical feasibility and economic profitability of new development. Their outreach to suppliers includes the development of close ties with Iran, a key concern to U.S. policymakers given skepticism about Tehran's nuclear program. This report outlines the energy portfolios and strategies of the three countries, including their pursuit of alternatives to petroleum." Also, "the possible implications of the surge in energy competition are wide-ranging, from provoking military conflict to spurring unprecedented regional cooperation." These implications could greatly affect the U.S. alliances with the Asian powers. Finally, "the report concludes with a number of options, including those that U.S. policymakers might pursue to encourage a trend towards cooperation and the depoliticization of energy policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Chanlett-Avery, Emma
2008-05-13
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Safeguarding the Nation's Drinking Water: EPA and Congressional Actions [Updated June 2, 2008]
"The events of September 11, 2001, focused heightened attention on the security status of the nation's drinking water supplies and the vulnerability of this critical infrastructure sector to attack. Congress since has enacted security requirements for public water systems and has provided funding for vulnerability assessments, emergency planning, and drinking water research. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the lead federal agency for the water sector, has worked with water utilities, state and local governments, and federal agencies to improve the drinking water security. [...] Although EPA, states, localities, and water utilities have taken steps to address security concerns, the security of the nation's water supplies continues to attract congressional attention. Issues receiving attention have included the status of efforts by the water sector to improve security, whether to increase federal requirements, funding needs for water systems to make security improvements, the relative roles and responsibilities of EPA and DHS regarding the water sector, and the status of research and development of technologies to help water systems detect and address potential biological and chemical contaminants. This report reviews governmental and water utility efforts to improve drinking water security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2008-06-02
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Russian Oil and Gas Challenges [Updated June 20, 2007]
"Given that the United States, as well as Russia, is a major energy producer and user, Russian energy trends and policies affect U.S. energy markets and economic welfare in general. An increase in Russia's energy production and its ability to export that energy could ease the supply situation in energy markets in the Atlantic and Pacific Basins. On the other hand, the Russian government's moves to take control of the country's energy supplies may reduce the amount of oil available. Possibly, U.S. suppliers of oil and gas field equipment and services could increase sales and investment in Russia. However, while the investment climate in Russia had been considered to be improving, it arguably is now worsening, as investors complain that it is inhospitable with respect to factors such as poor property rights protection, burdensome tax laws, inefficient government bureaucracy, and a tendency to limit foreign investor participation. This report, which will be updated as events warrant, was originally written by Bernard A. Gelb, CRS Specialist in Industry Economics, retired."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Pirog, Robert L.
2007-06-20
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Regulation of Debit Interchange Fees [July 12, 2011]
"Although the United States has seen continued growth of noncash or electronic payments, debit card transactions outpaced credit card transactions and other forms of payments in 2009. When a consumer uses a debit card in a transaction, the merchant pays a 'swipe' fee, which is also known as the interchange fee. The interchange fee is paid to the card-issuing bank (the consumer's bank that issued the debit card), and the fee covers the bank's costs to facilitate the transaction. Section 920 of the Dodd Frank Act, also known as the Durbin Amendment, authorizes the Federal Reserve Board to prescribe regulations to ensure that the amount of any interchange transaction fee received by a debit card issuer is reasonable and proportional to the cost incurred by the issuer. […] This report begins with a description of the debit payments process and network pricing. Possible effects of the Durbin Amendment on the banking system are then discussed in light of comments by Federal Reserve Board Chairman Ben Bernanke. Given that banks have increasingly relied upon non-interest or fee income during the past two decades, the decline in overall bank operating income may be material; smaller banks may be disproportionately affected because a large share of their fee income is generated through checking and savings deposits-related services. Technological developments by network providers, however, could reduce the revenues generated from this line of business for large and small banks even in the absence of the Durbin Amendment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Getter, Darryl E.
2011-07-12
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Renewable Energy R&D Funding History: A Comparison with Funding for Nuclear Energy, Fossil Energy, and Energy Efficiency R&D [March 7, 2012]
"Energy-related research and development (R&D)--on coal-based synthetic petroleum and on atomic power--played an important role in the successful outcome of World War II. In the postwar era, the federal government conducted R&D on fossil fuel and nuclear energy sources to support peacetime economic growth. The energy crises of the 1970s spurred the government to broaden the focus to include renewable energy and energy efficiency. Over the 35-year period from the Department of Energy's inception at the beginning of fiscal year (FY) 1978 through FY2012, federal funding for renewable energy R&D amounted to about 17% of the energy R&D total, compared with 15% for energy efficiency, 25% for fossil, and 37% for nuclear. For the 65- year period from 1948 through 2012, nearly 12% went to renewables, compared with 10% for efficiency, 25% for fossil, and 49% for nuclear."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sissine, Fred J.
2012-03-07
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Regulatory Reform Legislation in the 112th Congress [July 28, 2011]
"This report describes each of these 20 regulatory reform bills, notes whether similar legislation has been introduced or acted upon in the past, summarizes the comments of those supporting and opposing the proposed legislation, and provides other relevant information. To put the bills in context, the report first summarizes the current rulemaking requirements (primarily statutes and executive orders) that the proposed legislation would amend, codify, or otherwise affect. The report ends with some concluding observations, noting similarities, differences, and broad themes in the legislative proposals. Those themes include (1) an expansion of current rulemaking requirements, (2) an expansion of those requirements to independent regulatory agencies, (3) an emphasis on retrospective reviews of existing rules, and (4) an increase in the role of Congress in overseeing the actions of regulatory agencies. Within each of these broad areas, however, the bills often take very different approaches. Some of the reforms would, if enacted, place new and potentially substantial responsibilities on federal agencies and the Office of Management and Budget, which may require additional resources and time to satisfy. Some of the bills may require clarification to ensure that they are enacted as Congress intended, and some may raise legal or policy concerns."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Curtis W.
2011-07-28
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Research Tax Credit: Current Law, Legislation in the 112th Congress, and Policy Issues [March 7, 2012]
"Technological innovation is a major driving force in long-term economic growth, and research and development (R&D) serves as the lifeblood of innovation. The federal government encourages business R&D in a variety of ways, including a tax credit for a company's increases in spending on qualified research above a base amount. This report describes the current status of the credit, summarizes its legislative history, discusses policy issues it raises, and describes legislation in the 112th Congress to modify or extend it. The report will be updated as warranted by developments affecting the credit. The research credit has never been a permanent provision of the federal tax code and expired at the end of 2011. Since its enactment in mid-1981, the credit has been extended 14 times and significantly modified five times. While the credit is usually assumed to be a single credit, it actually consists of four discrete credits: (1) a regular credit, (2) an alternative simplified credit (ASC), (3) a basic research credit, and (4) an energy research credit. A taxpayer may claim no more than either of the first two and each of the other two, provided it meets the requirements for each."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Guenther, Gary L.
2012-03-07
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Same-Sex Marriages: Legal Issues [June 8, 2012]
"The recognition of same-sex marriages generates debate on both the federal and state levels. Either legislatively or judicially, same-sex marriage is legal in seven states. Other states allow civil unions or domestic partnerships, which may provide similar state-level rights and/or benefits. Many states have statutes or constitutional amendments limiting marriage to one man and one woman. These state-level variations raise questions about the validity of such unions outside the contracted jurisdiction and have bearing on the distribution of federal benefits. […] This report discusses DOMA [Defense of Marriage Act] and legal challenges to it. It reviews legal principles applied to determine the validity of a marriage contracted in another state and surveys the various approaches employed by states to enable or to prevent same-sex marriage. It also examines previous Congressional resolutions proposing a constitutional amendment and limiting federal courts' jurisdiction to hear or determine any question pertaining to the interpretation of DOMA."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Alison M., 1962-
2012-06-08
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Same-Sex Marriages: Legal Issues [May 9, 2012]
"The recognition of same-sex marriages generates debate on both the federal and state levels. Either legislatively or judicially, same-sex marriage is legal in seven states. Other states allow civil unions or domestic partnerships, which grant all or part of state-level rights, benefits, and/or responsibilities of marriage. Some states have statutes or constitutional amendments limiting marriage to one man and one woman. These variations raise questions about the validity of such unions outside the contracted jurisdiction and have bearing on the distribution of federal benefits. […] The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), P.L. 104-199, prohibits federal recognition of same-sex marriages and allows individual states to refuse to recognize such marriages performed in other states. Section 3 of DOMA requires that marriage, for purposes of federal benefit programs, be defined as the union of one man and one woman. […] This report discusses DOMA and legal challenges to it. It reviews legal principles applied to determine the validity of a marriage contracted in another state and surveys the various approaches employed by states to enable or to prevent same-sex marriage. The report also examines House and Senate resolutions introduced in previous Congresses proposing a constitutional amendment and limiting federal courts' jurisdiction to hear or determine any question pertaining to the interpretation of DOMA."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Alison M., 1962-
2012-05-09
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Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa's Newest Country [July 25, 2011]
"In January 2011, South Sudan held a referendum to decide between unity or independence from the central government of Sudan as called for by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement that ended the country's decades-long civil war in 2005. According to the South Sudan Referendum Commission (SSRC), 98.8% of the votes cast were in favor of separation. In February 2011, Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir officially accepted the referendum result, as did the United Nations, the African Union, the European Union, the United States, and other countries. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan officially declared its independence. The Obama Administration welcomed the outcome of the referendum and recognized South Sudan as an independent country on July 9, 2011. […] The crisis in the disputed area of Abyei remains a contentious issue, despite a temporary agreement reached in mid-June 2011. The ongoing conflict in the border state of Southern Kordofan could lead to a major crisis if left unresolved. The parties have yet to reach agreements on border demarcation, citizenship rights, security arrangements, and use of the Sudanese port and pipeline for oil exports. South Sudan also faces various economic, government capacity, and infrastructure challenges (see 'Development Challenges'). The United States maintains a number of sanctions on the government of Sudan. Most of these sanctions have been lifted from South Sudan and other marginalized areas. However, existing sanctions on the oil sector would require waivers by the executive branch. The U.S. Congress is likely to deal with these issues in the coming months."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-07-25
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Rising Energy Competition and Energy Security in Northeast Asia: Issues for U.S. Policy [May 3, 2007]
"Asia has become a principal driver in world energy markets, largely due to China's remarkable growth in demand. As the gap between consumption and production levels in Asia expands, the region's economic powers appear to be increasingly anxious about their energy security, concerned that tight supplies and consequent high prices may constrain economic growth. Rising energy competition in East Asia promises to affect U.S. policy in many ways, from contributing to price spikes because of China's rapidly increasing demand to altering the geostrategic landscape in the years to come as regional powers struggle to secure access to energy supplies. This report analyzes how China, Japan, and South Korea's pursuits to bolster their energy security impacts U.S. interests. It also examines decisions being made by Asian states now that will significantly shape global affairs in the future, how these decisions might play out, and how Congress and the executive branch might play a role in those decisions. […] Many analysts concur that it is in the interest of the United States for the governments of China, Japan, and South Korea to approach energy policy from a market perspective. They believe that if Beijing, Tokyo, and Seoul instead link energy supply with overall security, the potential for conflict and instability is heightened. The report concludes with a number of options, including those that U.S. policymakers might pursue to encourage a trend towards cooperation and the depoliticization of energy policy. This report will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Chanlett-Avery, Emma
2007-05-03
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Royalty Relief for U.S. Deepwater Oil and Gas Leases [December 7, 2007]
"The most common incentives for offshore oil and gas development include various forms of royalty relief. The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to grant royalty relief to promote increased oil and gas production (43 U.S.C. 1337). The Deep Water Royalty Relief Act of 1995 (DWRRA) expanded the Secretary's royalty relief authority in the Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf (OCS). […] Under Title II, this bill would, among other things, deny new Gulf of Mexico oil and gas leases to lessees holding leases without price thresholds or payment of or agreement to pay newly established 'conservation of resources' fees. On January 18, 2007, the House passed H.R. 6, without amendment, by a vote of 264-123. On July 30, 2007, the House introduced H.R. 3221, containing language on offshore royalties (under Title VII) nearly identical to Title II of H.R. 6. The House approved H.R. 3221 on August 4, 2007, by a vote of 241-170, but on December 6, 2007 the House approved the Senate-passed version of energy policy legislation (H.R. 6) without the royalty relief provisions discussed above. The bill is now pending in the Senate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphries, Marc
2007-12-07
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Renewable Energy R&D Funding History: A Comparison with Funding for Nuclear Energy, Fossil Energy, and Energy Efficiency R&D [April 9, 2008]
"Energy research and development (R&D) intended to advance technology played an important role in the successful outcome of World War II. In the post-war era, the federal government conducted R&D on fossil fuel and nuclear energy sources to support peacetime economic growth. The energy crises of the 1970s spurred the government to broaden the focus to include renewable energy and energy efficiency. Over the 30-year period from the Department of Energy's inception at the beginning of fiscal Year (FY) 1978 through FY2007, federal spending for renewable energy R&D amounted to about 16% of the energy R&D total, compared with 15% for energy efficiency, 25% for fossil, and 41% for nuclear. For the 60-year period from 1948 through 2007, nearly 11% went to renewables, compared with 9% for efficiency, 25% for fossil, and 54% for nuclear."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sissine, Fred J.
2008-04-09
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Renditions: Constraints Imposed by Laws on Torture [January 22, 2009]
"Although the particularities regarding the usage of extraordinary renditions and the legal authority behind such renditions are not publicly available, various U.S. officials have acknowledged the practice's existence. During the Bush Administration, there was some controversy as to the usage of renditions by the United States, particularly with regard to the alleged transfer of suspected terrorists to countries known to employ harsh interrogation techniques that may rise to the level of torture, purportedly with the knowledge or acquiescence of the United States. This report discusses relevant international and domestic law restricting the transfer of persons to foreign states for the purpose of torture. The U.N. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), and its domestic implementing legislation (the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998) impose the primary legal restrictions on the transfer of persons to countries where they would face torture. Both CAT and U.S. implementing legislation generally prohibit the rendition of persons to countries in most cases where they would more likely than not be tortured, though there are arguably limited exceptions to this prohibition. [...]. Besides CAT, additional obligations may be imposed upon U.S. rendition practice via the Geneva Conventions, the War Crimes Act (as amended by the Military Commissions Act (P.L. 109-366)), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John
2009-01-22
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Regulation of Broadcast Indecency: Background and Legal Analysis [Updated June 23, 2004]
"Two recent events have placed increased attention on the FCC and its indecency regulations. The airing of the 2003 Golden Globe Awards and the subsequent ruling by the FCC's Enforcement Bureau, coupled with the controversy surrounding the 2004 Super Bowl half-time show, have brought broadcast indecency to the forefront of the congressional agenda. Bills have been introduced to increase the penalties imposed for broadcast indecency (H.R. 3717, S. 2056, and S. 2147) and to prohibit the broadcast of certain words and phrases in any grammatical form (H.R. 3687). One such bill, H.R. 3717, was passed by the House on March 11, 2004. Resolutions have been introduced to express disapproval of the FCC Enforcement Bureau's decision regarding the Golden Globe Awards broadcast: H.Res. 482, H.Res. 500, and S.Res. 283, which the Senate passed on December 9, 2003. In addition, both the House and Senate have held or scheduled hearings on broadcast indecency. This report provides background on the two events in question, discusses the legal evolution of the FCC's indecency regulations, and provides an overview of how the current regulations have been applied. The final section of the report considers whether prohibiting the broadcast of 'indecent' words regardless of context would violate the First Amendment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cohen, Henry, 1949-; Welborn, Angie A.
2004-06-23
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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): Selected Regulatory and Legislative Issues [Updated September 10, 2008]
This is an updated report from the Congressional Research Service on the regulatory and legislative issues of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). "Much progress has been made in assuring the quality of public water supplies since the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was first enacted in 1974. Public water systems must meet extensive regulations, and public water system management has become a much more complex and professional endeavor. […] Despite such progress, however, an array of issues and challenges remain. In the 110th Congress, key issues have involved infrastructure funding needs, related compliance issues, and concerns caused by detections of unregulated contaminants in drinking water, such as perchlorate and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Another issue involves the adequacy of existing regulations (such as trichloroethylene) and EPA's pace in reviewing and potentially revising older standards. […] Although funding authority for most SDWA programs expired in FY2003, Congress continues to appropriate funds annually for these programs. No broad reauthorization bills have been proposed, as EPA, states, and water systems continue efforts to implement and comply with the requirements of the 1996 law and new regulations. […] The issue of the affordability of drinking water regulations, such as those for arsenic, radium, and disinfection by-products, has merged with the larger debate over what is the appropriate federal role in assisting communities with financing drinking water infrastructure. Water infrastructure financing legislation has been offered in recent Congresses to authorize increased funding for the DWSRF program and to provide grant assistance for small communities. In the 110th Congress, bills have been introduced to provide technical, financial, and other compliance assistance to small communities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2008-09-10
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Renditions: Constraints Imposed by Laws on Torture [Updated December 9, 2005]
"This report discusses relevant international and domestic law restricting the transfer of persons to foreign states for the purpose of torture. The U.N. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), and its domestic implementing legislation (the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998) impose the primary legal restrictions on the transfer of persons to countries where they would face torture. CAT and U.S. implementing legislation generally prohibit the rendition of persons to countries in most cases where they would more likely than not be tortured, though there are arguably limited exceptions to this prohibition. Under U.S. regulations implementing CAT, a person may be transferred to a country that provides credible assurances that the rendered person will not be tortured. Neither CAT nor implementing legislation prohibits the rendition of persons to countries where they would be subject to harsh interrogation techniques not rising to the level of torture. Besides CAT, additional obligations may be imposed upon U.S. rendition practice via the Geneva Conventions, the War Crimes Act, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John
2005-12-09
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Renditions: Constraints Imposed by Laws on Torture [Updated September 22, 2005]
"This report discusses relevant international and domestic law restricting the transfer of persons to foreign states for the purpose of torture. The U.N. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), and its domestic implementing legislation (the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998) impose the primary legal restrictions on the transfer of persons to countries where they would face torture. CAT and U.S. implementing legislation generally prohibit the rendition of persons to countries in most cases where they would more likely than not be tortured, though there are arguably limited exceptions to this prohibition. Under U.S. regulations implementing CAT, a person may be transferred to a country that provides credible assurances that the rendered person will not be tortured. Neither CAT nor implementing legislation prohibits the rendition of persons to countries where they would be subject to harsh interrogation techniques not rising to the level of torture. Besides CAT, additional obligations may be imposed upon U.S. rendition practice via the Geneva Conventions, the War Crimes Act, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John
2005-09-22
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Renditions: Constraints Imposed by Laws on Torture [Updated July 5, 2005]
"This report discusses relevant international and domestic law restricting the transfer of persons to foreign states for the purpose of torture. The U.N. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), and its domestic implementing legislation (the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998) impose the primary legal restrictions on the transfer of persons to countries where they would face torture. CAT and U.S. implementing legislation generally prohibit the rendition of persons to countries in most cases where they would more likely than not be tortured, though there are arguably limited exceptions to this prohibition. Under U.S. regulations implementing CAT, a person may be transferred to a country that provides credible assurances that the rendered person will not be tortured. Neither CAT nor implementing legislation prohibits the rendition of persons to countries where they would be subject to harsh interrogation techniques not rising to the level of torture. Besides CAT, additional obligations may be imposed upon U.S. rendition practice via the Geneva Conventions, the War Crimes Act, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2005-07-05
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Regulation of Broadcast Indecency: Background and Legal Analysis [Updated March 5, 2004]
Two recent events have placed increased attention on the FCC and its indecency
regulations . The airing of the 2003 Golden Globe Awards and the subsequent ruling
by the FCC's Enforcement Bureau, coupled with the controversy surrounding the
2004 Super Bowl half-time show, have brought broadcast indecency to the forefront
of the congressional agenda. Bills have been introduced to increase the penalties
imposed for broadcast indecency (H.R. 3717, S. 2056, S . 2147) and to prohibit the
broadcast of certain words and phrases in any grammatical form (H.R. 3687).
Resolutions have been introduced to express disapproval of the FCC Enforcement
Bureau's decision regarding the Golden Globe Awards broadcast : H.Res. 482, H.Res.
500, and S . Res. 283, which the Senate passed on December 9, 2003 . In addition,
both the House and Senate have held or scheduled hearings on broadcast indecency.
This report provides background on the two events in question, discusses the legal
evolution of the FCC's indecency regulations, and provides an overview of how the
current regulations have been applied . The final section of the report considers
whether prohibiting the broadcast of "indecent" words regardless of context would
violate the First Amendment.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cohen, Henry, 1949-; Welborn, Angie A.
2004-03-05
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Rising Energy Competition and Energy Security in Northeast Asia: Issues for U.S. Policy [Updated February 9, 2005]
"Asia has become a principal driver in world energy markets, largely due to China's remarkable growth in demand. As the gap between consumption and production levels in Asia expands, the region's economic powers appear to be increasingly anxious about their energy security, concerned that tight supplies and consequent high prices may constrain economic growth. Rising energy competition in East Asia promises to impact U.S. policy in many ways, from contributing to price spikes because of China's rapidly increasing demand to altering the geo-strategic landscape in the years to come as regional powers struggle to secure access to energy supplies. This report analyzes the short-term and long-term impact on U.S. interests of alternatives being pursued by China, Japan, and South Korea to bolster their energy security. It also examines decisions being made by Asian states now that will significantly shape global affairs in the future, how these decisions might play out, and how Congress and the executive branch might play a role in those decisions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Chanlett-Avery, Emma
2005-02-09
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Safeguarding the Nation's Drinking Water: EPA and Congressional Actions [Updated March 7, 2003]
"The events of September 11 raised concerns about the security of the nation's drinking water supplies and their vulnerability to attack. Issues include the readiness of water utilities to prevent and respond to attacks on water systems, steps that can be taken to improve preparedness and response capabilities, and the availability of resources to help utilities enhance drinking water security. After a presidential commission on critical infrastructure protection identified vulnerabilities in the water sector in 1997, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), with other federal agencies, water utilities, and state and local governments, began taking steps to improve the security of water systems, although these efforts generally were not targeted to current concerns over terrorism...Since September 11, 2001, EPA has increased efforts to help utilities safeguard facilities and supplies from terrorist or other threats in numerous ways...The 107th Congress took significant steps to improve drinking water security...In February 2003, the White House issued the National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets, which designates EPA as the lead agency for protecting critical water infrastructure. The 108th Congress may be interested in overseeing implementation of the water security provisions of the Bioterrorism Act and other efforts to improve drinking water security. Regarding funding, the Consolidated Appropriations Resolution for FY2003, P.L. 108-7 (H.J.Res. 2) provides more than $22 million for EPA for water security activities." - Excerpts from Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2003-03-07
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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): Selected Regulatory and Legislative Issues [July 27, 2010]
"Much progress has been made in assuring the quality of public water supplies since the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was first enacted in 1974. Public water systems must meet extensive regulations, and water utility management has become a much more complex and professional endeavor. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has regulated some 91 drinking water contaminants, and more regulations are pending. In 2007, the number of community water systems reporting no violations of drinking water standards was 89.5%. Despite nationwide progress in providing safe drinking water, an array of issues and challenges remain. Recent issues have involved infrastructure funding needs, regulatory compliance issues, and concerns caused by detections of unregulated contaminants in drinking water, such as perchlorate and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Another issue involves the adequacy of existing regulations (such as trichloroethylene (TCE)) and EPA's pace in reviewing and potentially revising older standards. Congress last reauthorized SDWA in 1996. Although funding authority for most SDWA programs expired in FY2003, Congress continues to appropriate funds annually for these programs. No broad reauthorization bills have been proposed, as EPA, states, and water systems continue efforts to implement current statutory programs and regulatory requirements. A long-standing and overarching SDWA issue concerns the cumulative cost and complexity of drinking water standards and the ability of water systems, especially small systems, to comply with standards."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2010-07-27
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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): Selected Regulatory and Legislative Issues [April 22, 2010]
"Water infrastructure financing legislation has been offered repeatedly in recent Congresses to authorize higher funding levels for the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) program, and also to provide grants and other compliance assistance to small communities. […]. The Senate Environment and Public Works Committee has reported S. 1005, a drinking water and wastewater infrastructure financing bill, and a bill to establish a water infrastructure trust fund, H.R. 3202, was introduced in the House. A newer SDWA issue concerns proposals and research regarding the underground injection of carbon dioxide (CO2) for long-term storage as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] has proposed regulations under SDWA [Safe Drinking Water Act] to provide a national permitting framework for managing the underground injection of CO2 for commercial-scale sequestration projects. In August 2009, EPA published a notice of data availability and requested additional comment on the proposed rule. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA; P.L. 110-140) included carbon sequestration research and development provisions, and specified that geologic sequestration activities shall be subject to SDWA provisions related to protecting underground drinking water sources. Another underground injection issue concerns the increasing use of hydraulic fracturing to produce natural gas from unconventional geologic formations. Bills have been introduced to authorize regulation of this practice under the SDWA underground injection control program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2010-04-22
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Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS): Overview and Issues [October 14, 2010]
"Federal policy has played a key role in the emergence of the U.S. biofuels industry. Policy measures include minimum renewable fuel usage requirements, blending and production tax credits, an import tariff, loans and loan guarantees, and research grants. This report focuses on the mandated minimum usage requirements--referred to as the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)-- whereby a minimum volume of biofuels is to be used in the national transportation fuel supply each year. It describes the general nature of the RFS mandate and its implementation, and outlines some emerging issues related to the sustainability of the continued growth in U.S. biofuels production needed to fulfill the expanding RFS mandate, as well as the emergence of potential unintended consequences of this rapid expansion. Congress first established an RFS with the enactment of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct, P.L. 109-58). This initial RFS (referred to as RFS1) mandated that a minimum of 4 billion gallons be used in 2006, and that this minimum usage volume rise to 7.5 billion gallons by 2012. Two years later, the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA, P.L. 110-140) superseded and greatly expanded the biofuels blending mandate. The expanded RFS (referred to as RFS2) required the annual use of 9 billion gallons of biofuels in 2008 and expanded the mandate to 36 billion gallons annually in 2022, of which no more than 15 billion gallons can be ethanol from corn starch, and no less than 16 billion must be from cellulosic biofuels. In addition, EISA carved out specific requirements for 'other advanced biofuels' and biomass-based biodiesel."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-; Yacobucci, Brent D.
2010-10-14
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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): Selected Regulatory and Legislative Issues [Updated January 13, 2010]
"Water infrastructure financing legislation has been offered repeatedly in recent Congresses to authorize higher funding levels for the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) program, and also to provide grants and other compliance assistance to small communities. [...] In July, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee reported S. 1005, a drinking water and wastewater infrastructure financing bill, and a bill to establish a water infrastructure trust fund, H.R. 3202, was introduced in the House. A newer SDWA issue concerns proposals and research regarding the underground injection of carbon dioxide (CO2) for long-term storage as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] has proposed regulations under SDWA to provide a national permitting framework for managing the underground injection of CO2 for commercial-scale sequestration projects. In August 2009, EPA published a notice of data availability and requested additional comment on the proposed rule. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA; P.L. 110-140) included carbon sequestration research and development provisions, and specified that geologic sequestration activities shall be subject to SDWA provisions related to protecting underground drinking water sources. Another underground injection issue concerns the increasing use of hydraulic fracturing to produce natural gas from unconventional geologic formations. Bills have been introduced to authorize regulation of this practice under the SDWA underground injection control program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2010-01-13
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Safeguarding the Nation's Drinking Water: EPA and Congressional Actions [September 30, 2010]
"The events of September 11, 2001, focused heightened attention on the security status of the nation's drinking water supplies and the vulnerability of this critical infrastructure sector to attack. Congress since has enacted security requirements for public water systems and has provided funding for vulnerability assessments, emergency planning, and drinking water research. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the lead federal agency for the water sector, has worked with water utilities, state and local governments, and federal agencies to improve the drinking water security. The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (P.L. 107- 188) amended the Safe Drinking Water Act to require some 8,400 community water systems to assess vulnerabilities and prepare emergency response plans. It authorized funding for these activities and for emergency grants to states and utilities, and it directed EPA to review methods to prevent, detect, and respond to threats to water safety and infrastructure security. The act did not require water systems to make security upgrades to address potential vulnerabilities. In most years since FY2002, Congress appropriated roughly $5 million annually for EPA to work with states and the water sector to improve the security of drinking water supplies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2010-09-30
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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): A Summary of the Act and Its Major Requirements [December 10, 2010]
"This report summarizes the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and its major programs and regulatory requirements. It excerpts, with several additions, the SDWA chapter of CRS Report RL30798, Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by the Environmental Protection Agency, which provides summaries of the principal environmental statutes administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This report includes the drinking water security provisions added to the SDWA by the Public Heath Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-188). The SDWA, Title XIV of the Public Health Service Act, is the key federal law for protecting public water supplies from harmful contaminants. First enacted in 1974 and substantially amended in 1986 and 1996, the act is administered through programs that establish standards and treatment requirements for public water supplies, control underground injection of wastes, finance infrastructure projects, and protect sources of drinking water. The 1974 law established the current federal-state arrangement in which states may be delegated primary implementation and enforcement authority for the drinking water program. The state-administered Public Water Supply Supervision (PWSS) Program remains the basic program for regulating the nation's public water systems, and 49 states have assumed this authority. The last major reauthorization of the act was done through the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 (P.L. 104-182), which generally authorized appropriations for SDWA programs through FY2003. As with other EPA-administered statutes having expired funding authority, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for the ongoing SDWA programs. In addition to reviewing key programs and requirements of the SDWA, this report includes statistics on the number and types of regulated public water systems. It also provides tables that list all major amendments, with the year of enactment and public law number, and that cross-reference sections of the act with the major U.S. Code sections of the codified statute."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2010-12-10
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Safeguarding the Nation's Drinking Water: EPA and Congressional Actions [Updated August 22, 2002]
"The events of September 11 raised concerns about the security of the nation's drinking water supplies and their vulnerability to attack. Issues include the readiness of water utilities to prevent and respond to attacks on water systems, steps that can be taken to improve preparedness and response capabilities, and the availability of resources to help utilities enhance drinking water security. After a presidential commission on critical infrastructure protection identified vulnerabilities in the drinking water sector in 1997, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), along with other federal agencies, water utilities, and state and local governments, began taking steps to improve the security of water systems, although these efforts generally were not targeted to current concerns over terrorism. For several years, EPA has provided some research, information, and technical and financial assistance to improve preparedness and increase the security of drinking water systems and supplies. Some of these activities began pursuant to the 1998 Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 63 on protecting the nation's critical infrastructure, but PDD-63 efforts were focused almost entirely on computer security issues. Since September 11; however, EPA has substantially broadened and expedited its efforts to help drinking water utilities safeguard facilities and supplies from terrorist or other threats. Congress has taken significant steps to improve security in the water sector since September 11. In the emergency supplemental appropriations for FY2002 (P.L. 107- 117, H.R.3338), Congress provided EPA with $175.6 million for several counterterrorism activities, including enhancing drinking water security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2002-08-22
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Renditions: Constraints Imposed by Laws on Torture [September 8, 2009]
"This report discusses relevant international and domestic law restricting the transfer of persons to foreign states for the purpose of torture. The U.N. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), and its domestic implementing legislation (the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998) impose the primary legal restrictions on the transfer of persons to countries where they would face torture. Both CAT and U.S. implementing legislation generally prohibit the rendition of persons to countries in most cases where they would more likely than not be tortured, though there are arguably limited exceptions to this prohibition. Historically, the State Department has taken the position that CAT's provisions concerning the transfer of persons do not apply extraterritorially, though as a matter of policy the United States does not transfer persons in its custody to countries where they would face torture (U.S. regulations and statutes implementing CAT, however, arguably limit the extraterritorial transfer of individuals nonetheless). Under U.S. regulations implementing CAT, a person may be transferred to a country that provides credible assurances that the rendered person will not be tortured. Neither CAT nor its implementing legislation prohibit the rendition of persons to countries where they would be subject to harsh treatment not rising to the level of torture. Besides CAT, additional obligations may be imposed upon U.S. rendition practice via the Geneva Conventions, the War Crimes Act (as amended by the Military Commissions Act (P.L. 109-366), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2009-09-08
