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CARES Act Title IV Financial Assistance Ends [January 8, 2021]

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From the Document: "Under Title IV of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act, P.L. 116-136), the U.S. Department of the Treasury made loans to specified industries and investments in Federal Reserve programs, authorized until the end of 2020. While Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) confirmed cases and deaths continue to reach new highs, financial conditions stabilized shortly after enactment of the CARES Act. This raised the question of whether assistance should be extended at least until the pandemic ended or allowed to expire because financial stability had been restored. The December COVID-19-related relief package (specifically, Division N, Title X, of P.L. 116-260) did not change the year-end expiration date and permanently closed down all but one of the Fed programs backed by CARES funding. In effect, those programs may be revived only by a future act of Congress and not at the Federal Reserve and Treasury Secretary's discretion. This Insight provides some preliminary observations on Title IV assistance."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Labonte, Marc; Scott, Andrew P.

2021-01-08
Army Corps of Engineers: FY2021 Appropriations [Updated January 4, 2021]

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From the Document: "Congress generally funds the civil works activities of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in annual Energy and Water Development appropriations acts. These activities include the planning and construction of authorized water resource projects and the operation and maintenance of infrastructure and navigation improvements managed by USACE. For USACE civil works, President Trump requested $5.97billion for FY2021."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Normand, Anna E.; Carter, Nicole T.

2021-01-04
Army Corps of Engineers: Continuing Authorities Programs [Updated January 5, 2021]

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From the Document: "The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) undertakes water resource development projects pursuant to authorizing statutes and the receipt of appropriations. The standard process for a USACE project requires two separate congressional authorizations--one for studying feasibility and a subsequent one for construction--as well as appropriations for both. [...] Additionally, Congress has granted USACE programmatic authorities to undertake cost-shared projects of limited scope and cost without requiring project-specific congressional authorization. These programmatic USACE authorities are referred to as Continuing Authorities Programs (CAPs). Congress has consistently funded USACE CAPs above the President's request since FY2013."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Normand, Anna E.

2021-01-05
Global Economic Effects of COVID-19 [Updated January 8, 2021]

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From the Summary: "In the months since the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] outbreak was first diagnosed, it has spread to over 200 countries and all U.S. states. The pandemic has negatively affected global economic growth beyond anything experienced in nearly a century. Estimates so far indicate the virus could reduce global economic growth to an annualized rate of -4.5% to -6.0% in 2020, with a partial recovery of a rate of 2.5% to 5.2% in 2021. [...] The full economic impact of the pandemic likely will remain unclear until the negative health effects peak. This report provides an overview of the global economic costs to date and the response by governments and international institutions to address these effects."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-; Weiss, Martin A.; Schwarzenberg, Andres B. . . .

2021-01-08
Fair Labor Standards Act: Tracking Additional Complaint Data Could Improve DOL's Enforcement, Report to Congressional Requesters

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From the Highlights: "The FLSA [Fair Labor Standards Act] sets federal minimum wage and overtime pay requirements for millions of U.S. workers. WHD [Wage and Hour Division] may investigate worker complaints of FLSA violations or initiate investigations in industries it prioritizes for enforcement. GAO [Government Accountability Office] was asked to review WHD compliance actions. This report examines (1) trends in WHD's FLSA minimum wage and overtime cases, (2) the extent to which WHD's FLSA compliance actions targeted priority industries, and (3) the extent to which WHD's reported efforts and data indicate that WHD applied a consistent process to FLSA complaints."

United States. Government Accountability Office

2020-12
Access to Broadband Networks: The Net Neutrality Debate [March 12, 2015]

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"As congressional policymakers continue to debate telecommunications reform, a major discussion point revolves around what approach should be taken to ensure unfettered access to the Internet. The move to place restrictions on the owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet, to ensure equal access and non-discriminatory treatment, is referred to as 'net neutrality.' While there is no single accepted definition of 'net neutrality,' most agree that any such definition should include the general principles that owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet should not control how consumers lawfully use that network, and they should not be able to discriminate against content provider access to that network. A major focus in the debate is concern over whether the current framework is sufficient for policymakers to enable them to take the necessary steps to ensure access to the Internet for content, services, and applications providers, as well as consumers. Some look to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to address this issue using current provisions in the 1934 Communications Act to protect the marketplace from potential abuses that could threaten the net neutrality concept. Others feel that existing laws are outdated and limited, cannot be used to establish regulations to address current issues and furthermore will not stand up to court review. They advocate that the FCC should look to Congress for guidance to amend current law to update FCC authority before action is taken."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gilroy, Angele A.

2015-03-12
Access to Broadband Networks: The Net Neutrality Debate [January 15, 2015]

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From the Introduction: "As congressional policy makers continue to debate telecommunications reform, a major discussion point revolves around what approach should be taken to ensure unfettered access to the Internet. The move to place restrictions on the owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet, to ensure equal access and non-discriminatory treatment, is referred to as 'net neutrality.' There is no single accepted definition of 'net neutrality.' However, most agree that any such definition should include the general principles that owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet should not control how consumers lawfully use that network, and that they should not be able to discriminate against content provider access to that network. A major focus in the debate is concern over whether the current framework is sufficient for policy makers to enable them to take the necessary steps to ensure access to the Internet for content, services, and applications providers, as well as consumers. Some look to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to address this issue using current provisions in the 1934 Communications Act to protect the marketplace from potential abuses that could threaten the net neutrality concept. Others feel that existing laws are outdated and limited, cannot be used to establish regulations to address current issues, and furthermore will not stand up to court review. They advocate that the FCC should look to the Congress for guidance to amend current law to update FCC authority before action is taken. Still others contend that existing laws and policies are sufficient to deal with potential anti-competitive behavior and that additional regulations would have negative effects on the expansion and future development of the Internet."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Gilroy, Angele A.

2015-01-15
Help America Vote Act and Election Administration: Overview and Issues [December 5, 2014]

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"The deadlocked November 2000 presidential election focused national attention on previously obscure details of election administration. Even before the U.S. Supreme Court had resolved the election in December, numerous bills to address the failings of the election system were introduced in Congress and state legislatures. The response at the federal level was the Help America Vote Act (HAVA; P.L. 107-252), enacted in 2002. HAVA created the Election Assistance Commission (EAC), established a set of election administration requirements, and provided federal funding, but did not supplant state and local control over election administration. Several issues have arisen or persisted in the years since HAVA was enacted. This report provides background information about HAVA and its provisions, the EAC, funding for the agency and for state programs to improve elections, and a number of enduring election administration issues. […] Altogether, more than $3.5 billion of HAVA funds were appropriated through FY2013: about $3.28 billion in election reform payments to states, $128 million for the EAC and its programs, and $130 million in accessibility payments to states, administered by the Department of Health and Human Services. Numerous bills to amend HAVA have been considered in Congress, but none have been enacted. Thus far in the 113th Congress, two bills (H.R. 260 and H.R. 1994) have been introduced to eliminate the EAC. H.R. 3463 in the 112th Congress had similar provisions and passed in the House. Appropriations bills that passed the House for FY2014 and FY2015 included no funds for the EAC, although funding was restored in the final legislation. In contrast, two bills (H.R. 12 and H.R. 2017) introduced in this Congress would extend authorization of the agency for five years."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Coleman, Kevin J.; Fischer, Eric A.

2014-12-05
Mexico's Oil and Gas Sector: Background, Reform Efforts, and Implications for the United States [January 27, 2015]

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"The future of oil and natural gas production in Mexico is of importance for both Mexico's economic growth, as well as for U.S. energy security, a key congressional interest. Mexico is a top trade partner and crude oil supplier to the United States. Mexico's state oil company, Petroleos Mexicanos (Pemex) remains an important source of government revenue even as it is struggling to counter declining oil production and reserves. Due to an inability to meet rising demand, Mexico has also significantly increased natural gas imports from the United States. Still, gas shortages have hindered the country's economic performance, including in manufacturing sectors that are highly integrated with U.S. industries. […] The opening of Mexico's oil and natural gas sector could expand U.S.-Mexico energy trade and provide opportunities for U.S. companies involved in the hydrocarbons sector, as well as infrastructure and other oil field services. If these reforms accelerate growth and investment in Mexico (as the government has stated) they could also benefit North American competitiveness. Industry analysts maintain that the reforms are generally well-designed, but that the way they are implemented will likely determine whether they prove to be as transformative as the Mexican government expects. The success of the reforms may also depend on trends in global oil prices. Should oil prices remain at current levels, shale resources and other unconventional fields may not be feasible to develop at this time."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Seelke, Clare Ribando; Villarreal, M. Angeles; Brown, Phillip (Specialist in Energy Policy) . . .

2015-01-27
Cybersecurity: Legislation, Hearings, and Executive Branch Documents [March 19, 2015]

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"Cybersecurity vulnerabilities challenge governments, businesses, and individuals worldwide. Attacks have been initiated against individuals, corporations, and countries. Targets have included government networks, companies, and political organizations, depending upon whether the attacker was seeking military intelligence, conducting diplomatic or industrial espionage, engaging in cybercrime, or intimidating political activists. In addition, national borders mean little or nothing to cyber attackers, and attributing an attack to a specific location can be difficult, which may make responding problematic. Despite many recommendations made over the past decade, no major legislative provisions relating to cybersecurity had been enacted since 2002. However, on December 18, 2014, in the last days of the 113th Congress, five cybersecurity bills were signed by the President. […] In April 2011, the Obama Administration sent Congress legislative proposals that would have given the federal government new authority to ensure that corporations owning assets most critical to the nation's security and economic prosperity adequately addressed risks posed by cybersecurity threats. This report provides links to cybersecurity legislation in the 112th and 113th Congresses."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Tehan, Rita

2015-03-19
Constitutional Analysis of Suspicionless Drug Testing Requirements for the Receipt of Governmental Benefits [March 6, 2015]

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"For decades, federal policymakers and state administrators of governmental assistance programs, such as the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grants (formerly Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)), the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly Food Stamps), the Section 8 Housing Choice Voucher program, and their precursors, have expressed concern about the 'moral character' and worthiness of beneficiaries. For example, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 made individuals who have three or more convictions for certain drug-related offenses permanently ineligible for various federal benefits. A provision in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 went a step further by explicitly authorizing states to test TANF beneficiaries for illicit drug use and to sanction recipients who test positive. Some policymakers have shown a renewed interest in conditioning the receipt of governmental benefits on passing drug tests. For example, in February 2012, the President signed into law an amendment to the Social Security Act that authorizes states to condition the receipt of certain unemployment compensation benefits on passing drug tests. Additionally, lawmakers in a majority of states reportedly proposed legislation in 2011, 2012, 2013, and/or 2014 that would require drug testing beneficiaries of governmental assistance under certain circumstances, while at least 12 state governments over that time have enacted such legislation."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Carpenter, David Hatcher

2015-03-06
Mandatory Spending Since 1962 [March 18, 2015]

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"Federal spending is divided into three broad categories: discretionary spending, mandatory spending, and net interest. Mandatory spending is composed of budget outlays controlled by laws other than appropriation acts, including federal spending on entitlement programs. Entitlement programs such as Social Security and Medicare make up the bulk of mandatory spending. […] Over the long term, projections suggest that if current policies remain unchanged, the United States could face a major fiscal imbalance, largely due to rising health care costs and impending baby boomer retirements. Federal mandatory spending on health care is projected to expand from 5% of GDP[Gross Domestic Product] in FY2014 to 14% in FY2089 according to Congressional Budget Office's (CBO) extended baseline projection. Social Security is projected to grow from 5% of GDP in FY2014 to 7% of GDP by FY2089. The share of mandatory spending continues to increase as a portion of total federal spending. Because discretionary spending is a smaller proportion of total federal outlays compared to mandatory spending, some budget experts contend that any significant reductions in federal spending must include cuts in entitlement spending. Other budget and social policy experts contend that cuts in entitlement spending could compromise their goals: the economic security of the elderly and the poor. This report will be updated annually."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Levit, Mindy R.; Austin, D. Andrew; Stupak, Jeffrey M.

2015-03-18
Marine Corps Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) and Marine Personnel Carrier (MPC): Background and Issues for Congress [January 6, 2015]

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"On January 6, 2011, after spending approximately $3 billion in developmental funding, the Marine Corps cancelled the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV) program due to poor reliability demonstrated during operational testing and excessive cost growth. Because the EFV was intended to replace the 40-year-old Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV), the Pentagon pledged to move quickly to develop a 'more affordable and sustainable' vehicle to replace the EFV. The Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) is intended to replace the AAV, incorporating some EFV capabilities but in a more practical and cost-efficient manner. In concert with the ACV, the Marines were developing the Marine Personnel Carrier (MPC) to serve as a survivable and mobile platform to transport Marines when ashore. The MPC was not intended to be amphibious like an AAV, EFV, or the ACV but instead would be required to have a swim capability for inland waterways such as rivers, lakes, and other water obstacles such as shore-to-shore operations in the littorals. Both vehicles are intended to play a central role in future Marine amphibious operations. On June 14, 2013, Marine leadership put the MPC program 'on ice' due to budgetary pressures but suggested the program might be resurrected some 10 years down the road when budgetary resources might be more favorable."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew

2015-01-06
Membership of the 114th Congress: A Profile [March 31, 2015]

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"This report presents a profile of the membership of the 114th Congress (2015-2016). Statistical information is included on selected characteristics of Members, including data on party affiliation, average age, occupation, education, length of congressional service, religious affiliation, gender, ethnicity, foreign births, and military service. As of March 31, 2015, in the House of Representatives, there are 245 Republicans (including one Delegate), 193 Democrats (including four Delegates and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico), and three vacancies. The Senate has 54 Republicans, 44 Democrats, and two Independents, who both caucus with the Democrats. The average age of Members of the House at the beginning of the 114th Congress was 57.0 years; of Senators, 61.0 years. The overwhelming majority of Members of Congress have a college education. The dominant professions of Members are public service/politics, business, and law. Most Members identify as Christians, and Protestants collectively constitute the majority religious affiliation. Roman Catholics account for the largest single religious denomination, and numerous other affiliations are represented. The average length of service for Representatives at the beginning of the 114th Congress was 8.8 years (4.4 terms); for Senators, 9.7 years (1.6 terms). One hundred eight women (a record number) serve in the 114th Congress: 88 in the House, including four Delegates, and 20 in the Senate. There are 46 African American Members of the House and two in the Senate. This House number includes two Delegates. There are 38 Hispanic or Latino Members (a record number) serving: 34 in the House, including one Delegate and the Resident Commissioner, and four in the Senate. A record 14 Members (11 Representatives, two Delegates, and one Senator) are Asian Americans or Pacific Islanders. Two American Indians (Native Americans) serve in the House."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manning, Jennifer E.

2015-03-31
Membership of the 114th Congress: A Profile [January 22, 2015]

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"This report presents a profile of the membership of the 114th Congress (2015-2016). Statistical information is included on selected characteristics of Members, including data on party affiliation, average age, occupation, education, length of congressional service, religious affiliation, gender, ethnicity, foreign births, and military service. As of January 6, 2015, in the House of Representatives, there are 247 Republicans (including one Delegate), 193 Democrats (including four Delegates and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico), and one vacancy. The Senate has 54 Republicans, 44 Democrats, and two Independents, who both caucus with the Democrats. […] One hundred eight women (a record number) serve in the 114th Congress: 88 in the House, including four Delegates, and 20 in the Senate. There are 46 African American Members of the House and two in the Senate. This House number includes two Delegates. There are 38 Hispanic or Latino Members (a record number) serving: 34 in the House, including one Delegate and the Resident Commissioner, and four in the Senate. A record 14 Members (11 Representatives, two Delegates, and one Senator) are Asian Americans or Pacific Islanders. Two American Indians (Native Americans) serve in the House."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manning, Jennifer E.

2015-01-22
Medicare Primer [March 16, 2017]

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"Medicare is a federal program that pays for covered health care services of qualified beneficiaries. It was established in 1965 under Title XVIII of the Social Security Act to provide health insurance to individuals 65 and older, and has been expanded over the years to include permanently disabled individuals under the age of 65. Medicare, which consists of four parts (A-D), covers hospitalizations, physician services, prescription drugs, skilled nursing facility care, home health visits, and hospice care, among other services. Generally, individuals are eligible for Medicare if they or their spouse worked for at least 40 quarters in Medicare-covered employment, are 65 years old, and are a citizen or permanent resident of the United States. Individuals may also qualify for coverage if they are a younger person who cannot work because they have a medical condition that is expected to last at least one year or result in death, have end-stage renal disease (permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or transplant), or have amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's disease). The program is administered by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), and by private entities that contract with CMS to provide claims processing, auditing, and quality oversight services. [...] This report provides a general overview of the Medicare program including descriptions of the program's history, eligibility criteria, covered services, provider payment systems, and program administration and financing. A list of commonly used acronyms, as well as information on beneficiary cost sharing, may be found in the appendixes."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Davis, Patricia A.; Binder, Cliff; Hahn, Jim . . .

2017-03-16
Mexico: Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking Organizations [April 25, 2017]

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"The notorious drug trafficking kingpin Joaquín 'El Chapo' Guzmán is now imprisoned in the United States awaiting trial, following the Mexican government's decision to extradite him to the United States on January 19, 2017, the day before President Trump took office. Guzmán is charged with operating a continuing criminal enterprise and conducting drug-related crimes as the purported leader of the Mexican criminal syndicate commonly known as the Sinaloa cartel. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) maintains that the Sinaloa cartel has the widest reach into U.S. cities of any transnational criminal organization. In November 2016, in its National Drug Threat Assessment, the DEA stated that Mexican drug trafficking groups are working to expand their presence, particularly in the heroin markets inside the United States. Over the years, Mexico's criminal groups have trafficked heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, marijuana, and increasingly the powerful synthetic opioid fentanyl. Mexico's drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) have been in constant flux. [...] The 115th Congress remains concerned about security conditions inside Mexico and the illicit drug trade. The Mexican DTOs are the major wholesalers of illegal drugs in the United States and are increasingly gaining control of U.S. retail-level distribution. This report examines how the organized crime landscape has been significantly altered by fragmentation and how the organizational shape-shifting continues."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Beittel, June S.

2017-04-25
Members' Representational Allowance: History and Usage [January 30, 2017]

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"This report provides a history and overview of the MRA [Members' Representational Allowance] and examines spending patterns in recent years. The data exclude non-voting Members, including Delegates and the Resident Commissioner, as well as Members who were not in Congress for the entirety of the session. Information is provided on total spending and spending for various categories, including personnel compensation; travel; rent, utilities, and communications; printing and reproduction; other services; supplies and materials; equipment; and franked mail. The data collected demonstrate that, despite variations when considering all Members, many Members allocate their spending in a similar manner, and spending allocation patterns have remained relatively consistent over time."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Brudnick, Ida A.

2017-01-30
Marine Corps Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) and Marine Personnel Carrier (MPC): Background and Issues for Congress [March 8, 2017]

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"On January 6, 2011, after spending approximately $3 billion in developmental funding, the Marine Corps cancelled the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV) program due to poor reliability demonstrated during operational testing and excessive cost growth. Because the EFV was intended to replace the 40-year-old Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV), the Pentagon pledged to move quickly to develop a 'more affordable and sustainable' vehicle to replace the EFV. The Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) is intended to replace the AAV, incorporating some EFV capabilities but in a more practical and cost-efficient manner. In concert with the ACV, the Marines were developing the Marine Personnel Carrier (MPC) to serve as a survivable and mobile platform to transport Marines when ashore. The MPC was not intended to be amphibious like an AAV, EFV, or the ACV but instead would be required to have a swim capability for inland waterways such as rivers, lakes, and other water obstacles such as shore-to-shore operations in the littorals. Both vehicles are intended to play central roles in future Marine amphibious operations. [...] A potential issue for Congress is the Marines' new MPC/ACV acquisition strategy and its associated challenges and risks."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew

2017-03-08
Membership of the 115th Congress: A Profile [March 13, 2017]

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"This report presents a profile of the membership of the 115th Congress (2017-2018) as of March 13, 2017. Statistical information is included on selected characteristics of Members, including data on party affiliation, average age, occupation, education, length of congressional service, religious affiliation, gender, ethnicity, foreign births, and military service. In the House of Representatives, there are 239 Republicans (including 1 Delegate and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico), 197 Democrats (including 4 Delegates), and 5 vacant seats. The Senate has 52 Republicans, 46 Democrats, and 2 Independents, who both caucus with the Democrats. The average age of Members of the House at the beginning of the 115th Congress was 57.8 years; of Senators, 61.8 years, among the oldest in U.S. history. The overwhelming majority of Members of Congress have a college education. The dominant professions of Members are public service/politics, business, and law. Most Members identify as Christians, and Protestants collectively constitute the majority religious affiliation. Roman Catholics account for the largest single religious denomination, and numerous other affiliations are represented, including Jewish, Mormon, Buddhist, Muslim, Hindu, Greek Orthodox, Pentecostal Christian, Unitarian Universalist, and Christian Science."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manning, Jennifer E.

2017-03-13
Membership of the 115th Congress: A Profile [February 10, 2017]

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"This report presents a profile of the membership of the 115th Congress (2017-2018) as of January 4, 2017. Statistical information is included on selected characteristics of Members, including data on party affiliation, average age, occupation, education, length of congressional service, religious affiliation, gender, ethnicity, foreign births, and military service. In the House of Representatives, there are 243 Republicans (including 1 Delegate and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico) and 198 Democrats (including 4 Delegates). The Senate has 52 Republicans, 46 Democrats, and 2 Independents, who both caucus with the Democrats. The average age of Members of the House at the beginning of the 115th Congress was 57.8 years; of Senators, 61.8 years, among the oldest in U.S. history."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manning, Jennifer E.

2017-02-10
Invoking Cloture in the Senate [April 6, 2017]

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"Cloture is the only procedure by which the Senate can vote to set an end to a debate without also rejecting the bill, amendment, conference report, motion, or other matter it has been debating. A Senator can make a nondebatable motion to table an amendment, and if a majority of the Senate votes for that motion, the effect is to reject the amendment. Thus, the motion to table cannot be used to conclude a debate when Senators still wish to speak and to enable the Senate to vote 'for' the proposal it is considering. Only the cloture provisions of Rule XXII achieve this purpose."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Davis, Christopher M., 1966-

2017-04-06
Maritime Territorial and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Disputes Involving China: Issues for Congress [September 18, 2015]

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"China's actions for asserting and defending its maritime territorial and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) claims in the East China (ECS) and South China Sea (SCS), particularly since late 2013, have heightened concerns among observers that China may be seeking to dominate or gain control of its near-seas region, meaning the ECS, the SCS, and the Yellow Sea. Chinese domination over or control of this region could substantially affect U.S. strategic, political, and economic interests in the Asia-Pacific region and elsewhere. China is a party to multiple territorial disputes in the SCS and ECS, including, in particular, disputes over the Paracel Islands, Spratly Islands, and Scarborough Shoal in the SCS, and the Senkaku Islands in the ECS. China depicts its territorial claims in the SCS using the so-called map of the nine-dash line that appears to enclose an area covering roughly 90% of the SCS. Some observers characterize China's approach for asserting and defending its territorial claims in the ECS and SCS as a 'salami-slicing' strategy that employs a series of incremental actions, none of which by itself is a 'casus belli', to gradually change the status quo in China's favor. In addition to territorial disputes in the SCS and ECS, China is involved in a dispute, particularly with the United States, over whether China has a right under international law to regulate the activities of foreign military forces operating within China's EEZ. The dispute appears to be at the heart of incidents between Chinese and U.S. ships and aircraft in international waters and airspace in 2001, 2002, 2009, 2013, and 2014."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald

2015-09-18
Maritime Territorial and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Disputes Involving China: Issues for Congress [December 22, 2015]

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"China's actions for asserting and defending its maritime territorial and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) claims in the East China (ECS) and South China Sea (SCS), particularly since late 2013, have heightened concerns among observers that China may be seeking to dominate or gain control of its near-seas region, meaning the ECS, the SCS, and the Yellow Sea. Chinese domination over or control of this region could substantially affect U.S. strategic, political, and economic interests in the Asia-Pacific region and elsewhere. China is a party to multiple territorial disputes in the SCS and ECS, including, in particular, disputes over the Paracel Islands, Spratly Islands, and Scarborough Shoal in the SCS, and the Senkaku Islands in the ECS. China depicts its territorial claims in the SCS using the so-called map of the nine-dash line that appears to enclose an area covering roughly 90% of the SCS. Some observers characterize China's approach for asserting and defending its territorial claims in the ECS and SCS as a 'salami-slicing' strategy that employs a series of incremental actions, none of which by itself is a casus belli, to gradually change the status quo in China's favor. In addition to territorial disputes in the SCS and ECS, China is involved in a dispute, particularly with the United States, over whether China has a right under international law to regulate the activities of foreign military forces operating within China's EEZ. The dispute appears to be at the heart of incidents between Chinese and U.S. ships and aircraft in international waters and airspace in 2001, 2002, 2009, 2013, and 2014."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald

2015-12-22
International Trade and Finance: Key Policy Issues for the 114th Congress, 2nd Session [February 29, 2016]

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"The U.S. Constitution grants authority to Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations. Congress exercises this authority in numerous ways, including through oversight of trade policy and consideration of legislation to approve trade agreements and authorize trade programs. Policy issues cover such areas as U.S. trade negotiations, U.S. trade and economic relations with specific regions and countries, international institutions focused on trade, tariff and nontariff barriers, worker dislocation due to trade liberalization, trade remedy laws, import and export policies, international investment, economic sanctions, and other trade-related functions of the federal government. Congress also has authority over U.S. financial commitments to international financial institutions and oversight responsibilities for trade-and finance-related agencies of the U.S. government."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Irace, Mary A.; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias

2016-02-29
Medicare Primer [March 31, 2016]

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"Medicare is a federal program that pays for covered health care services of qualified beneficiaries. It was established in 1965 under Title XVIII of the Social Security Act to provide health insurance to individuals 65 and older, and has been expanded over the years to include permanently disabled individuals under the age of 65. Medicare, which consists of four parts (A-D), covers hospitalizations, physician services, prescription drugs, skilled nursing facility care, home health visits, and hospice care, among other services. Generally, individuals are eligible for Medicare if they or their spouse worked for at least 40 quarters in Medicare-covered employment, are 65 years old, and are a citizen or permanent resident of the United States. Individuals may also qualify for coverage if they are a younger person who cannot work because they have a medical condition that is expected to last at least one year or result in death, have end-stage renal disease (permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or transplant), or have amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's disease). The program is administered by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), and by private entities that contract with CMS to provide claims processing, auditing, and quality oversight services."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Davis, Patricia A.; Talaga, Scott R.; Binder, Cliff . . .

2016-03-31
Internet Governance and the Domain Name System: Issues for Congress [March 23, 2016]

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"The Internet is often described as a 'network of networks' because it is not a single physical entity, but hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks linking hundreds of millions of computers around the world. As such, the Internet is international, decentralized, and comprised of networks and infrastructure largely owned and operated by private sector entities. As the Internet grows and becomes more pervasive in all aspects of modern society, the question of how it should be governed becomes more pressing. […] Currently, the U.S. government, through the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) at the Department of Commerce, holds a 'stewardship' role over the domain name system by virtue of a contractual relationship with ICANN. On March 14, 2014, NTIA announced its intention to transition its stewardship role and procedural authority over key domain name functions to the global Internet multi-stakeholder community. If a satisfactory transition can be achieved, NTIA stated that it would let its contract with ICANN expire as early as September 30, 2015. On August 17, 2015, NTIA announced that the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) contract will be extended for one year until September 30, 2016. NTIA has also stated that it will not accept any transition proposal that would replace the NTIA role with a government-led or an intergovernmental organization solution. On March 10, 2016, the ICANN Board formally accepted the multi-stakeholder community's transition plan and transmitted that plan to NTIA for approval."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kruger, Lennard G.

2016-03-23
Cybersecurity: Legislation, Hearings, and Executive Branch Documents [January 15, 2016]

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"Cybersecurity vulnerabilities challenge governments, businesses, and individuals worldwide. Attacks have been initiated against individuals, corporations, and countries. Targets have included government networks, companies, and political organizations, depending upon whether the attacker was seeking military intelligence, conducting diplomatic or industrial espionage, engaging in cybercrime, or intimidating political activists. In addition, national borders mean little or nothing to cyberattackers, and attributing an attack to a specific location can be difficult, which may make responding problematic. Despite many recommendations made over the past decade, most major legislative provisions relating to cybersecurity had been enacted prior to 2002. However, on December 18, 2014, in the last days of the 113th Congress, five cybersecurity bills were signed by the President."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

2016-01-15
First-Term Members of the House of Representatives and Senate, 64th - 114th Congresses [March 7, 2016]

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"This report provides summary data on the number of Senators and Members of the House of Representatives who first entered Congress between the 64th Congress (1915-1917) and the 114th Congress (2015-2016). First-term membership is divided into two broad categories in each chamber: Members chosen prior to the convening of a Congress, and those chosen after a Congress convenes. The resulting data, combining pre-convening and post-convening first-term Members, provide a count of all Members who served a first term in the House or Senate."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manning, Jennifer E.; Petersen, R. Eric

2016-03-07
Arctic Report Card 2020

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From the Executive Summary: "The Arctic Report Card (ARC) provides an annual update on the state of the Arctic's climate and environment as well as highlights of Arctic science news of the past year. ARC2020 features 16 essays, 11 of which provide updates on a wide range of Arctic science topics, from the past year's air temperatures and sea ice conditions to the latest in bowhead whale research. Taken as a whole, across a variety of disciplines and viewpoints, the story is unambiguous: the transformation of the Arctic to a warmer, less frozen, and biologically changed region is well underway. Extreme high temperatures in the Eurasian Arctic in spring and summer 2020 provide a clear demonstration of the strong connections within the Arctic environment that characterize this region. Three closely connected essays examine the acquisition of observational data and their use in modeling to understand physical systems in the Arctic. ARC2020 also marks the publication's 15th anniversary. Two essays reflect back across the evolution of the ARC itself and the tools utilized to help understand the changes in progress. We must report that, like so much else, ARC2020 was altered by the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic. A planned essay on the impacts of the changing Arctic on food security from the viewpoints of Indigenous marine mammal hunters from two northwest Alaska communities had to be postponed to a future ARC due to travel and community-related exposure restrictions." For more information, including a video presentation, visit [https://www.arctic.noaa.gov/Report-Card/Report-Card-2020].

United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Thoman, Rick; Richter-Menge, Jacqueline A.; Druckenmiller, Matthew L.

2020-12

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