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Precision-Guided Munitions: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 26, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report focuses on selected precision-guided munitions (PGMs) fielded by the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. Over the years, the U.S. military has relied on PGMs to execute ground, air, and naval military operations. PGMs have become ubiquitous in U.S. military operations; funding for these weapons has increased dramatically from FY1998 to the present as depicted in. In FY2021, the Department of Defense (DOD) requested approximately $4.1 billion for more than 41,337 weapons in 15 munitions programs. DOD projects requesting approximately $3.3 billion for 20,456 weapons in FY2022, $3.9 billion for 23,306 weapons in FY2023, $3.9 billion for 18,376 weapons in FY2024, and $3.6 billion for 16,325 weapons in FY2025."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hoehn, John R.; Ryder, Samuel D.
2020-06-26
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Policing Reform Legislation: Conditions on Funding and New Authorizations [June 25, 2020]
From the Document: "The death of George Floyd in Minneapolis, MN, while in the custody of law enforcement, along with several other high-profile deaths of African Americans at the hands of the police (including Eric Garner in Staten Island, NY; Philando Castile in Falcon Heights, MN; and Breonna Taylor in Louisville, KY), have served as the catalyst for protests against police violence in cities across the country. These deaths and the resulting protests have spurred interest in policing reform legislation in Congress. On June 8, 2020, Representative Karen Bass introduced the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2020 (H.R. 7120). Ten days later, Senator Tim Scott introduced the Just and Unifying Solutions to Invigorate Communities Everywhere Act of 2020 (JUSTICE Act; S. 3985). [...] This report provides an overview of the new conditions that would be placed on existing grant programs and the authorizations for new grant programs contained in both pieces of legislation. The report does not discuss provisions of either bill that do not establish new requirements for state and local governments or authorize new funding (e.g., proposals to make lynching a federal crime or to make the use of chokeholds a federal civil rights violation)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
James, Nathan
2020-06-25
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Regulating Federal Law Enforcement: Considerations for Congress [June 24, 2020]
From the Document: "In the wake of unrest arising from the May 2020 death of George Floyd, broader questions have arisen regarding Congress's authority to regulate law enforcement officers. While federalism principles limit the extent to which Congress may pass laws directly affecting state and local police officers, Congress has broader authority to regulate 'federal' law enforcement officers and agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), or the Customs and Border Protection (CBP). This Sidebar explores the existing criminal, administrative, and civil remedies that impose liability on federal law enforcement officials for claims of excessive use of force, including those brought under the 'Bivens' doctrine and the Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA). It then concludes by discussing considerations for Congress regarding further regulation of federal law enforcement officials"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Novak, Whitney K.
2020-06-24
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Policing the Police: Qualified Immunity and Considerations for Congress [Updated June 25, 2020]
From the Document: "Qualified immunity is a judicially created doctrine shielding public officials who are performing discretionary functions from civil liability. The doctrine plays a particularly prominent role in defense of civil rights lawsuits against federal law enforcement officials under the 'Bivens' doctrine and against state and local police under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (Section 1983). With regard to its role in civil lawsuits concerning violations of constitutional norms regulating the police, defenders of the doctrine have suggested that qualified immunity plays an important role in affording police officers some level of deference when making split-second decisions about whether to, for example, use force to subdue a fleeing or resisting suspect. Critics of the doctrine have questioned its legal origins and have argued that its practice has provided too much deference to the police at the expense of accountability and the erosion of criminal suspects' constitutional rights. With increasing focus on whether Congress should legislate to abrogate or otherwise modify the doctrine, this Sidebar explores the legal basis for qualified immunity, how it has operated in practice, and current debate over the efficacy of the doctrine. The Sidebar concludes by discussing considerations for Congress regarding qualified immunity."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Novak, Whitney K.
2020-06-25
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Sri Lanka [Updated June 25, 2020]
From the Document: "The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, known as Ceylon until 1972, is a constitutional democracy in South Asia with relatively high levels of development. It is strategically located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern tip of India's Deccan Peninsula. The island nation was settled by successive waves of migration from India beginning in the 5th -century BC. Indo-Aryans from northern India established Sinhalese Buddhist kingdoms in the central part of the island. Tamil Hindus from southern India also settled in northeastern coastal areas and established a kingdom on the Jaffna Peninsula. Beginning in the 16th century, Sri Lanka was colonized in succession by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-
2020-06-25
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Removal of Nazi Symbols and Inscriptions on Headstones of Prisoners of War in VA National Cemeteries [June 26, 2020]
From the Overview: "On May 12, 2020, the Military Religious Freedom Foundation's Founder and President, Michael L. Weinstein, called on Secretary of Veterans Affairs (VA), Robert Wilkie, to immediately remove three World War II-era headstones located in two VA national cemeteries. These prisoner-of-war (POW) headstones each bear the Iron Cross insignia, representing a Prussian and German military honor that included a swastika when awarded by Nazi Germany. Two of these headstones also have a German-language inscription that translates to 'He died far from his home for Führer, people and Fatherland.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Salazar, Heather M.; DeSantis, Mark K.; Torreon, Barbara Salazar . . .
2020-06-26
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Proposals for Systems of Records on 'Wandering Officers' [June 25, 2020]
From the Document: "Two major policing reform bills before Congress would attempt to reform law enforcement practices, especially practices that are considered to be biased against people of color. The two bills, H.R. 7120 and S. 3985, would, among other things, require state and local governments to report data on the use of force, promote the use of body-worn cameras, expand de-escalation training, and reduce racial profiling. Both pieces of legislation would also attempt to curb so-called 'wandering officers' (i.e., law enforcement officers who are fired or resign under threat of termination but are later hired by another law enforcement agency, often in another state)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
James, Nathan
2020-06-25
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Supplemental Appropriations: SBA Disaster Loan Account [June 22, 2020]
From the Document: "In response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic's widespread adverse economic impact on the national economy, Congress made COVID-19-related economy injury an eligible expense for Small Business Administration (SBA) Economic Injury Disaster Loans (EIDL). Congress also provided SBA an additional $20 million for SBA disaster assistance administrative expenses (P.L. 116- 123, Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2020). At that time, the SBA had about $1.1 billion in its disaster loan credit subsidy account to support about $7 billion in disaster loans. These funds are available until expended and are used to pay for disaster loan defaults and related expenses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lindsay, Bruce R.; Nagel, Jared C.; Dilger, Robert Jay, 1954-
2020-06-22
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Israel's Possible Annexation of West Bank Areas: Frequently Asked Questions [June 29, 2020]
From the Summary: "Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu has stated his intent for Israel to annex parts of the West Bank in 2020. Annexation could raise issues for Congress, and varying congressional views on the subject have contributed to debate about implications for U.S.-Israel relations. Congress may conduct additional oversight of Trump Administration actions and could modify or place conditions on U.S. funding for Israel, the Palestinians, and various international organizations. [...] Some answers to frequently asked questions in this report address key points of historical context and U.S. policy, how annexation might affect existing realities, and various factors that could influence Israeli decisions on annexation. Considerable debate within Israel focuses on whether the risks of annexation are justified by benefits beyond those that Israel already has from its de facto control over the West Bank areas in question."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim
2020-06-29
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Hydrogen in Electricity's Future [June 30, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report is focused on the current and potential sources of hydrogen, and several of the various technologies and processes for its economic production and use. Replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen for the generation of electricity may provide one potential avenue for reducing GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions. However, hydrogen production and technologies to use hydrogen as a fuel for power generation currently present higher cost options, if the potential negative externalities of carbon dioxide emissions are not considered."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Campbell, Richard J.
2020-06-30
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Iran's Nuclear Program: Tehran's Compliance with International Obligations [Updated June 29, 2020]
From the Summary: "This report provides a brief overview of Iran's nuclear program and describes the legal basis for the actions taken by the IAEA [International Atomic Energy Agency] board and the Security Council."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.
2020-06-29
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Foxes, Henhouses, and Pension Plans: Supreme Court Concludes Pensioners Receiving Promised Benefits Can't Sue for Retirement Plan Mismanagement [June 30, 2020]
From the Document: "In early June 2020, the Supreme Court handed down its decision in 'Thole v. U.S. Bank' concerning the ability of pension plan participants to sue plan fiduciaries who engage in alleged misconduct. In 'Thole,' the Court's majority held, in a 5-4 decision, that pensioners receiving the full amount of their retirement benefits lacked standing to sue plan fiduciaries for self-dealing and mismanagement of pension plan investments. This Legal Sidebar provides background on federal pension plan regulation under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) and standing to sue in federal courts; discusses the Court's decision in 'Thole'; and concludes with selected legal considerations for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Staman, Jennifer A.
2020-06-30
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Latin America and the Caribbean: U.S. Policy Overview [Updated July 1, 2020]
From the Document: "U.S. interests in Latin America and the Caribbean are diverse and include economic, political, security, and humanitarian concerns. Geographic proximity has ensured strong economic linkages between the United States and the region, with the United States a major trading partner and source of foreign investment for many countries. Free-trade agreements (FTAs) have augmented U.S. economic relations with 11 countries in the region. The Western Hemisphere is a large source of U.S. immigration, both legal and illegal; with proximity and economic and security conditions the major factors driving migration trends."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2020-07-01
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Impact of COVID-19 [Updated July 10, 2020]
From the Document: "The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is having widespread economic, social, and political effects on Latin America and the Caribbean, a region with strong congressional interest because of deep U.S. linkages. As of July 10, 2020, the region had almost 3.2 million confirmed cases and over 138,000 deaths, with deaths surging in several countries. Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Chile, and Ecuador have the highest numbers of deaths in the region, and Brazil has the highest number worldwide after the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.; Meyer, Peter J. . . .
2020-07-10
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Israel and the Palestinians: Chronology of a Two-State Solution [Updated June 30, 2020]
From the Document: "The idea of a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict developed gradually in the years after Israel captured the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. This product highlights the evolution of this idea. In 2002, U.S. policy became explicitly supportive of creating a Palestinian state alongside Israel. Since then, unsuccessful negotiating efforts and other developments have led many observers to doubt the viability of a twostate solution. Analysts debate whether the Trump Administration's 2020 release of the Administration's 'Vision for Peace' will help or hinder the parties in resolving core issues of dispute (security, borders, settlements, Jerusalem, Palestinian refugees). The plan sets some arguably difficult preconditions for a future Palestinian state, and could permit Israeli annexation of some West Bank areas--primarily Israeli settlements and the Jordan Valley."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim
2020-06-30
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Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA): An Overview [June 29, 2020]
From the Document: "The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) of 1977 generally prohibits corrupt payments to foreign officials in exchange for obtaining or retaining business. Congress enacted the FCPA in response to an investigation conducted by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) following the Watergate scandal. That investigation revealed that U.S. companies had spent hundreds of millions of dollars bribing foreign officials to secure business abroad. The FCPA targets such practices through both anti-bribery and accounting provisions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vanatko, Nicole
2020-06-29
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Global Human Rights: International Religious Freedom Policy [Updated June 29, 2020]
From the Introduction: "For decades, U.S. policymakers have sought to promote religious freedom abroad, reflecting both support for human rights in U.S. foreign policy as well as the particular emphasis on freedom of religion in U.S. domestic law and political culture. Protection of religious freedom is also affirmed in international law through the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and other instruments. Congress has been an advocate for international religious freedom issues and has sought to ensure continued support for religious freedom as a focus of U.S. foreign policy, most prominently through passage of the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 (IRFA)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weber, Michael A.
2020-06-29
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Global Economic Effects of COVID-19 [Updated July 21, 2020]
From the Summary: "Since the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] outbreak was first diagnosed, it has spread to over 200 countries and all U.S. states. The pandemic is negatively affecting global economic growth beyond anything experienced in nearly a century. Estimates so far indicate the virus could trim global economic growth by 3.0% to 6.0% in 2020, with a partial recovery in 2021, assuming there is not a second wave of infections. The economic fallout from the pandemic raises the risks of a global economic recession with levels of unemployment not experienced since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The human costs in terms of lives lost will permanently affect global economic growth in addition to the cost of rising levels of poverty, lives upended, careers derailed, and increased social unrest. Global trade could also fall by 13% to 32%, depending on the depth and extent of the global economic downturn, exacting an especially heavy economic toll on trade-dependent developing and emerging economies. The full impact will not be known until the effects of the pandemic peak. This report provides an overview of the global economic costs to date and the response by governments and international institutions to address these effects."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-; Weiss, Martin A.; Schwarzenberg, Andres B. . . .
2020-07-21
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Effect of COVID-19 on Federal Land Revenues [July 13, 2020]
From the Summary: "Four major federal land management agencies administer 606 million acres (95%) of the federal land in the United States (approximately 640 million acres). These agencies are the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and National Park Service (NPS) in the Department of the Interior (DOI) and the Forest Service (FS) in the Department of Agriculture. In addition, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), in DOI, manages access to approximately 1.7 billion offshore acres in federal waters on the U.S. outer continental shelf. The agencies administer their lands for a variety of purposes, primarily related to conservation, recreation, and development of natural resources. This report focuses on the potential impacts of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on certain revenue-generating activities, federal payment and revenue-sharing programs, and federal assistance programs administered by these resource-managing agencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hardy Vincent, Carol; Comay, Laura B.; Crafton, R. Eliot . . .
2020-07-13
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Nuclear Energy: Overview of Congressional Issues [Updated July 16, 2020]
From the Summary: "The policy debate over the role of nuclear power in the nation's energy mix is rooted in the technology's fundamental characteristics. Nuclear reactors can produce potentially vast amounts of useful energy with relatively low consumption of natural resources and emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. However, facilities that produce nuclear fuel for civilian power reactors can also produce materials for nuclear weapons. In addition, the process of nuclear fission (splitting of atomic nuclei) to generate power produces radioactive material that can remain hazardous for thousands of years and must be contained. How to manage the weapons proliferation and safety risks of nuclear power, or whether the benefits of nuclear power are worth those risks, are issues that have long been debated in Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Holt, Mark
2020-07-16
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UPDATE: 'Our Lady of Guadalupe' and the Ministerial Exception to Antidiscrimination Laws [Updated July 9, 2020]
From the Document: "'The Supreme Court issued its opinion in Our Lady of Guadalupe on July 8, 2020, reversing the Ninth Circuit decisions and ruling that the First Amendment barred courts from hearing the teachers' employment discrimination claims. Justice Alito, writing the majority opinion, stated that a 'variety of factors' could determine whether a religious organization's employment decisions are constitutionally protected with respect to any given employee, clarifying that the specific factors noted in Hosanna-Tabor were not 'inflexible requirements' or 'checklist items to be assessed. . . in every case.' Although the teachers in the combined cases before the Court did not have the job title of 'minister,' the Court concluded that they nonetheless 'performed vital religious duties' at the schools where they taught. In the Court's view, 'educating young people in their faith, inculcating its teachings, and training them to live their faith are responsibilities that lie at the very core of the mission of a private religious school.' Accordingly, the Court said, intervening in such a dispute would 'threaten[] the school's independence in a way that the First Amendment does not allow.' Justice Sotomayor dissented, joined by Justice Ginsburg. She emphasized that 'the teachers taught primarily secular subjects, lacked substantial religious titles and training, and were not even required to be Catholic.' In addition to the teachers' functions, the dissent's analysis continued to focus on the other 'objective and easily discernable' factors highlighted in' Hosanna-Tabor."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Brannon, Valerie C.
2020-07-09
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Ozone and Particulate Matter Air Standards: EPA Review [Updated July 6, 2020]
From the Document: "The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to review standards for national ambient air quality every five years. In 2018, EPA announced strategies to expedite the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) review while concurrently disbanding a pollutant-specific scientific review panel that has historically advised agency staff during their reviews. Although the CAA allows the EPA Administrator to specify the procedures for review of the NAAQS, past EPA reviews and revisions have garnered considerable congressional oversight. This In Focus discusses EPA's current NAAQS reviews for ozone and particulate matter (PM), which EPA had sought to complete in 2020, and issues of potential interest to Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shouse, Kate C.; Esworthy, Robert
2020-07-06
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FCC COVID-19 Telehealth Program and Connected Care Pilot Program: Funding to Assist Health Care Providers and Patients [Updated July 8, 2020]
From the Introduction: "Health care providers are leveraging 'telehealth,' which generally refers to a health care provider's use of information and communication technology to provide a health care service, to meet patients' health care needs during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. However, some providers do not have the infrastructure to offer, nor do some patients have the broadband access or connected devices to access, telehealth services. To address these gaps, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is administering the COVID-19 Telehealth Program and the Connected Care Pilot Program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elliott, Victoria L.
2020-07-08
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Delivery of Economic Impact Payments (EIPs) [Updated July 7, 2020]
From the Document: "To mitigate the financial hardship many Americans are experiencing during the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic, Congress passed the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act (P.L. 116-136). A critical element of the aid package is direct payments to certain individuals in 2020. The payments are referred to as 'recovery rebates' in Section 2201 of the act, but the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) calls them 'economic impact payments' (EIPs) in the notices it shares with the general public."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Guenther, Gary L.
2020-07-07
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Larger Businesses and COVID-19: Financial Relief and Assistance Resources [Updated July 20, 2020]
From the Document: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Insight presents selected resources and CRS products potentially relevant to medium and large businesses directly affected by the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic seeking economic relief and assistance. The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, enacted on March 27, 2020, contains provisions to assist businesses. This Insight focuses on potential sources of assistance designated for medium and large businesses that do not qualify for Small Business Administration programs or other assistance programs for small businesses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jennings, Julie
2020-07-20
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Publicly-Traded Firms and COVID-19-Related Disclosures [July 9, 2020]
From the Document: "To restore confidence in the securities markets in the wake of the stock market crash of 1929, Congress passed the Securities Act of 1933 (Securities Act; P.L. 73-22) and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (Exchange Act; P.L. 73-291). The Exchange Act created the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a key regulator of various facets of securities markets. The acts generally require companies that issue securities to the general public to publicly disclose data deemed material for investors on both the securities and the issuing firms. Financial disclosures are done quarterly, annually, and on an ad hoc basis for certain developments. Firms also can make certain legally protected, forward-looking predictive comments. The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is materially impacting many public firms. In response, the SEC has issued multiple staff guidance regarding possible company disclosures relating to the pandemic's impact. Americans for Financial Reform (AFR), a coalition of groups including the AFL-CIO [American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations] and Public Citizen, has advocated for disclosure requirements, not merely guidelines."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shorter, Gary W.
2020-07-09
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F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Program [Updated May 27, 2020]
From the Introduction: "The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), also called the Lightning II, is a strike fighter airplane being procured in different versions for the Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy. The F-35 program is DOD's largest weapon procurement program in terms of total estimated acquisition cost. Current Department of Defense (DOD) plans call for acquiring a total of 2,456 F-35s for the Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy at an estimated total acquisition cost, as of December, 2019, of about $397.8 billion in constant (i.e., inflation-adjusted) FY2012 dollars. U.S. allies are expected to purchase hundreds of additional F-35s, and eight foreign nations are cost-sharing partners in the program. [...] The proposed budget also requested about $1.7 billion for F-35 research and development."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gertler, Jeremiah
2020-05-27
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COVID-19 Health Care Provider Relief Fund [June 26, 2020]
From the Document: "In response to the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic, some health care providers limited in-person visits and cancelled elective procedures to reduce the spread of COVID-19, prepare for COVID-19 patients, and conserve personal protective equipment. As a consequence, some providers reported forgone revenue and/or significant financial challenges, making it difficult to sustain services. To address these concerns, Congress established the Provider Relief Fund (PRF, or the Fund) in the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act (P.L. 116-136) and appropriated $100 billion 'to reimburse, through grants or other mechanisms, eligible health care providers for health care related expenses or lost revenues that are attributable to coronavirus.' The Paycheck Protection Program and Health Care Enhancement Act (PPPHCEA, P.L. 116-139) added an additional $75 billion to the Fund."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Heisler, Elayne J., 1976-
2020-06-26
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Debates Over Currency Manipulation [Updated June 22, 2020]
From the Overview: "Some Members of Congress and policy experts argue that U.S. companies and jobs have been adversely affected by the exchange rate policies adopted by other countries. They allege that these countries use policies to 'manipulate' the value of their currency in order to gain an unfair trade advantage against other countries, including the United States. Other analysts are more skeptical about currency manipulation being a significant problem. They raise questions about whether government policies have long-term effects on exchange rates, whether it is possible to differentiate between 'manipulation' and legitimate central bank activities, and the net effect of currency manipulation on the U.S. economy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nelson, Rebecca M.
2020-06-22
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Constitutional Authority to Regulate the Privacy of State-Collected Contact-Tracing Data [June 26, 2020]
Form the Document: "Amid the ongoing COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic, several states have developed and promoted contact-tracing mobile device apps to identify individuals who may have had contact with infected persons. Additionally, the two largest manufacturers of mobile device operating systems, Apple (iOS) and Google (Android), have announced plans to release application programming interfaces (APIs) to 'enable interoperability between Android and iOS devices using apps from public health authorities.' Several bills in the 116th Congress would regulate the privacy of information collected through such contact-tracing apps."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Liu, Edward C.
2020-06-26
