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• U.S. Financial Crisis: Lessons from Sweden [September 29, 2008]

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  This Congressional Research Service (CRS) report "provides an overview of the Swedish banking crisis and an explanation of the measures Sweden used to restore its banking system to health." The lessons from Sweden could help resolve the current financial crisis in the United States. "Some analysts and others argue that Sweden's experience could provide useful lessons for the execution and implementation of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008. The banking crisis facing the United States is unique, so there are no exact parallels from which to draw templates. Sweden's experience, however, represents a case study in how a systemic banking crisis was resolved in a developed country with democratic institutions. The Swedish central bank separated out good assets, which it left to the banks to oversee from bad assets, which it placed in a separate agency with broad authority to work out debt problems or to liquidate assets. Four lessons that emerged form Sweden's experience are: 1) the process must be transparent; 2) the resolution agency must be politically and financially independent; 3) market discipline must be maintained; and 4) there must be a plan to jump-start credit flows in the financial system."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2008-09-29
• United States Code: Title 47, Chapter 5, Subchapter VI, Sec. 606. - War Powers of President

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  Title 47 describes the U.S. Code regarding Telecommunications. Section 606 describes the war powers of the President regarding wire or radio communications.

  United States. Government Printing Office
• Broadband Internet Regulation and Access: Background and Issues [Updated July 31, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Broadband or high-speed Internet access is provided by a series of technologies that give users the ability to send and receive data at volumes and speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. In addition to offering speed, broadband access provides a continuous, 'always on' connection and the ability to both receive (download) and transmit (upload) data at high speeds. Broadband access, along with the content and services it might enable, has the potential to transform the Internet: both what it offers and how it is used. It is possible that many of the future applications that will best exploit the technological capabilities of broadband have yet to be developed. There are multiple transmission media or technologies that can be used to provide broadband access. These include cable, an enhanced telephone service called digital subscriber line (DSL), satellite, fixed wireless (including 'wi-fi' and 'Wi-Max'), broadband over powerlines (BPL), fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), and others. While many (though not all) offices and businesses now have Internet broadband access, a remaining challenge is providing broadband over 'the last mile' to consumers in their homes. Currently, a number of competing telecommunications companies are developing, deploying, and marketing specific technologies and services that provide residential broadband access. From a public policy perspective, the goals are to ensure that broadband deployment is timely and contributes to the nation's economic growth, that industry competes fairly, and that service is provided to all sectors and geographical locations of American society."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gilroy, Angele A.; Kruger, Lennard G.

  2007-07-31
• U.S. Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions [Updated February 7, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "U.S. law provides for the temporary admission of various categories of foreign nationals, who are known as nonimmigrants. Nonimmigrants are admitted for a designated period of time and a specific purpose. They include a wide range of visitors, including tourists, foreign students, diplomats, and temporary workers. There are 24 major nonimmigrant visa categories, and 72 specific types of nonimmigrant visas issued currently. These visa categories are commonly referred to by the letter and numeral that denotes their subsection in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), e.g., B-2 tourists, E-2 treaty investors, F-1 foreign students, H-1B temporary professional workers, J-1 cultural exchange participants, or S-4 terrorist informants. [...] The law and regulations usually set strict terms for nonimmigrant lengths of stay in the United States, typically have foreign residency requirements, and often limit what aliens are permitted to do in the United States (e.g., gain employment or enroll in school), but many observers assert that the policies are not uniformly or rigorously enforced. Achieving an optimal balance among major policy priorities, such as ensuring national security, facilitating trade and commerce, protecting public health and safety, and fostering international cooperation, remains a challenge."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Haddal, Chad C.

  2007-02-07
• Water Resource Issues in the 110th Congress [Updated June 1, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Water resources management often involves trade-offs among user groups, environmental interests, and local, regional, and national interests. Water resources development is particularly controversial because of budgetary constraints, conflicting policy objectives, environmental impacts, and demands for local control. Hurricane Katrina brought to the forefront long-simmering policy disputes involving local control, federal financing, environmental and social tradeoffs, and multi-level accountability and responsibility for water infrastructure projects, such as levees. Construction, improvement, and management of other federal water resource projects (e.g., locks, dams, and diversion facilities) face similar challenges. The 110th Congress faces numerous issues and trade-offs as it considers water resource development, technology, water supply, and climate change legislation. These issues are likely to arise as Congress considers authorizations and appropriations for Bureau of Reclamation and Army Corps of Engineers projects (e.g., Water Resources Development Act of 2007, H.R. 1495), and agency policy and program changes (e.g., water reuse, federal project operations, and oversight of ecosystem restoration programs such as CALFED and Everglades). Oversight issues related to Hurricane Katrina and the federal role in hurricane and flood protection, and levee construction and management, also are ongoing."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cody, Betsy A.; Hughes, H. Steven

  2007-06-01
• Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights [July 15, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "Iraq's political system is increasingly characterized by peaceful competition and formation of cross-sectarian alliances. However, ethnic and sectarian political and sometimes violent infighting continues, often involving the questionable use of key levers of power and legal institutions. This infighting--and the belief that holding political power may mean the difference between life and death for the various political communities--significantly delayed agreement on a new government that was to be selected following the March 7, 2010, national elections for the Council of Representatives (COR, parliament). With U.S. diplomatic help, on November 10, 2010, major ethnic and sectarian factions agreed on a framework ('Irbil Agreement') for a new government, breaking the long deadlock. The agreement, under which Prime Minister Nuri al- Maliki is serving a second term, began to be implemented with the selection and confirmation of a broad-based cabinet on December 21, 2010. […] The Administration is hopeful that, as a U.S. drawdown or complete withdrawal proceeds, all factions will cooperate to act on key outstanding legislation crucial to attracting foreign investment, such as national hydrocarbon laws. The new government took action on some longstalled initiatives, including year-long tensions over Kurdish exports of oil. However, the lack of a broader and sustained focus on governance, or on improving key services, such as electricity, created popular frustration that manifested as protests since February 2011. The demonstrations were partly inspired by the wave of unrest that has broken out in many other Middle Eastern countries, but were not centered on overthrowing the regime or wholesale political change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-07-15
• Other Transaction (OT) Authority [July 15, 2011]

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  "An other transaction (OT) is a special vehicle used by federal agencies for obtaining or advancing research and development (R&D) or prototypes. An OT is not a contract, grant, or cooperative agreement, and there is no statutory or regulatory definition of 'other transaction.' Only those agencies that have been provided OT authority may engage in other transactions. OT authority originated with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) when the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 was enacted. Subsequently, seven other specific agencies have been given OT authority: the Department of Defense (DOD), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Transportation Security Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, and Department of Energy. Other federal agencies may use OT authority under certain circumstances and if authorized by the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Generally, the reason for creating OT authority is that the government needs to obtain leadingedge R&D (and prototypes) from commercial sources, but some companies (and other entities) are unwilling or unable to comply with the government's procurement regulations. The government's procurement regulations and certain procurement statutes do not apply to OTs, and, accordingly, other transaction authority gives agencies the flexibility necessary to develop agreements tailored to a particular transaction. […] Evidence of congressional interest in the use of other transaction authority includes the expansion of OT authority over the years (as noted above), and a 2008 congressional hearing on the Department of Homeland Security's use of OT authority. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Halchin, L. Elaine

  2011-07-15
• Honduran-U.S. Relations [July 14, 2011]

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  "On January 27, 2010, Porfirio 'Pepe' Lobo Sosa was inaugurated president of Honduras, assuming power after seven months of domestic political crisis and international isolation that had resulted from the June 28, 2009, ouster of President Manuel Zelaya. While the strength of Lobo's National Party in the legislature has enabled the administration to pass much of its policy agenda, Lobo has made only limited progress in addressing the challenges inherited as a result of the political crisis. Several efforts to foster political reconciliation have helped Honduras secure international recognition but have done little to lessen domestic polarization. Likewise, human rights abuses--which increased significantly in the aftermath of Zelaya's ouster--have continued, and the citizen security situation has deteriorated. In June 2011, 45% of Hondurans approved of Lobo's performance in office. […] The 111th Congress expressed considerable interest in Honduras as a result of the 2009 political crisis and its aftermath. Several resolutions were introduced and multiple hearings were held. Issues such as human rights abuses, the state of democracy, security challenges, and the treatment of U.S. businesses have continued to be of interest to the 112th Congress. On June 15, 2011, a bill (H.R. 2200) was introduced in the House to limit U.S. assistance to Honduras unless the President certifies that the Government of Honduras has settled all outstanding expropriation claims brought by U.S. companies. This report examines current political and economic conditions in Honduras as well as issues in Honduran-U.S. relations. For a more detailed examination of the Honduran political crisis, see CRS Report R41064, Honduran Political Crisis, June 2009-January 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Meyer, Peter J.

  2011-07-14
• Federal Funding for Wildfire Control and Management [July 5, 2011]

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  "The Forest Service (FS) and the Department of the Interior (DOI) are responsible for protecting most federal lands from wildfires. Wildfire appropriations nearly doubled in FY2001, following a severe fire season in the summer of 2000, and have remained at relatively high levels. The acres burned annually have also increased over the past 50 years, with the six highest annual totals occurring since 2000. Many in Congress are concerned that wildfire costs are spiraling upward without a reduction in damages. With emergency supplemental funding, FY2008 wildfire funding was $4.46 billion, more than in any previous year. The vast majority (about 95%) of federal wildfire funds are spent to protect federal lands--for fire preparedness (equipment, baseline personnel, and training); fire suppression operations (including emergency funding); post-fire rehabilitation (to help sites recover after the wildfire); and fuel reduction (to reduce wildfire damages by reducing fuel levels). Since FY2001, FS fire appropriations have included funds for state fire assistance, volunteer fire assistance, and forest health management (to supplement other funds for these three programs), economic action and community assistance, fire research, and fire facilities. […] Finally, post-fire rehabilitation is raising concerns. Agency regulations and legislation in the 109th Congress focused on expediting such activities, but opponents expressed concerns that this would restrict environmental review of and public involvement in salvage logging decisions, leading to greater environmental damage. Legislation was introduced but not enacted in the 110th Congress to provide alternative means of addressing post-fire restoration in particular areas. The large wildfires to date in 2011 have reignited concerns about post-fire rehabilitation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gorte, Ross W.

  2011-07-05
• World Bank Group Energy Sector Strategy [July 12, 2011]

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  "One in five people worldwide lack access to electricity. This is among the many challenges that financial institutions face when providing assistance to lower-income countries in order to promote economic and social development. Filling the need for access to modern energy sources has the potential to substantially increase world-wide economic growth, creating markets in the developing world for products from the developed world, and vice versa. Filling this need may also result in environmental problems that could threaten development, including an increase in pollution that damages fisheries, reduces farm fertility, poses health risks, and contributes to climate change. In response to these risks, the World Bank Group (WBG) has reported its intentions to revise its strategy for energy and infrastructure lending to better address energy poverty alleviation and environmentally sustainable development. […] While the U.S. Administration oversees the day-to-day participation in WBG operations, the U.S. Congress-- through its role in WBG appointments, appropriations, and legislative guidance--retains significant input. U.S. guidance to the WBG has focused on the institution's lending practices as a means to induce greater environmental sustainability in multilateral development assistance. The ESS [Energizing Sustainable Development: Energy Sector Strategy of the World Bank Group] thus becomes another potential vehicle for the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Administration to further address concerns regarding energy and infrastructure lending in lower-income countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lattanzio, Richard K.

  2011-07-12
• U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [July 15, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations, and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) has close to 60,000 active duty, National Guard, and reserve personnel from all four services and Department of Defense (DOD) civilians assigned to its headquarters, its four components, and one sub-unified command. The 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) directs increases in SOF force structure, particularly in terms of increasing enabling units and rotary and fixed-wing SOF aviation assets and units. USSOCOM Commander Admiral Eric T. Olson, in commenting on the current state of the forces under his command, noted that since September 11, 2001, USSOCOM manpower has nearly doubled, the budget nearly tripled, and overseas deployments have quadrupled; because of this high level of demand, the admiral added, SOF is beginning to show some 'fraying around the edges,' and one potential way to combat this is by finding ways to get SOF 'more time at home.' […] Another implication is that these force reductions might also have an impact on the creation and sustainment of Army and Marine Corps 'enabling' units that USSOCOM is seeking to support operations. Another potential issue involves initiatives to get more 'time at home' for SOF troops to help reduce stress on service members and their families. One of the major factors is that SOF has neither access to nor the appropriate types of training facilities near their home stations, thereby necessitating travel away from their bases and families to conduct pre-deployment training."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Feickert, Andrew

  2011-07-15
• House Offset Amendments to Appropriations Bills: Procedural Considerations [July 5, 2011]

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  "One of the most common methods for changing spending priorities in appropriations bills on the House floor is through offset amendments. House offset amendments generally change spending priorities in a pending appropriations measure by increasing spending for certain activities (or creating spending for new activities not included in the bill) and offsetting the increase with funding decreases in other activities in the bill. Offset amendments are needed to avoid the Congressional Budget Act 302(f) and 311(a) points of order enforcing certain spending ceilings affecting regular appropriations bills, continuing resolutions (CRs), and supplemental appropriations measures (supplementals). In addition, amendments to general appropriations bills that would increase total spending provided in the bill must be entirely offset. […] Parliamentary rules governing consideration of offset amendments may be suspended or waived, typically by House adoption of a special rule, but also by unanimous consent. The significant advantages of clause 2(f) amendments over reachback amendments are that clause 2(f) amendments may contain certain unauthorized appropriations and are typically considered before reachback amendments, sometimes limiting offset opportunities for reachback amendments. The main advantages of reachback amendments are they may add new appropriations and include across-the-board spending reductions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Streeter, Sandy

  2011-07-05
• Congressional Nominations to U.S. Service Academies: An Overview and Resources for Outreach and Management [July 5, 2011]

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  "Members of Congress are authorized by law to nominate candidates for appointment to four U.S. service academies. These schools are the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy. The fifth service academy, the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, does not require a congressional nomination for appointment. These institutions prepare college-age Americans to be officers of the United States uniformed services. Upon graduation, service academy graduates are commissioned as officers in the active or reserve components of the military or merchant marine for a minimum of five years. The nomination of constituents to one of the service academies can provide Members of Congress with the opportunity to perform community outreach and other representational duties. In some states and congressional districts, nominations are highly competitive. Others are less competitive, and some offices do not receive expressions of interest from enough applicants to fill the number of nominations allocated. Consequently, some congressional offices might need to dedicate considerable staff resources to the selection process to identify qualified candidates, while others can incorporate service academy nominations alongside other constituent service work such as casework. […] This report, which will be updated as warranted, describes statutory requirements for allocating congressional nominations to service academies. It also identifies the qualifications that must be met by potential nominees, as established by statute and each academy. Finally, sample documents that could be used by congressional offices at various stages of the nomination selection process are included. These documents provide basic information and can be customized to fit the specific needs of individual office policies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Petersen, R. Eric

  2011-07-05
• Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy [June 28, 2011]

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  "Stated U.S. policy is to ensure that Afghanistan will not again become a base for terrorist attacks against the United States. Following policy reviews in 2009, the Obama Administration asserted that it was pursuing a well-resourced and integrated military-civilian strategy intended to pave the way for a gradual transition to Afghan leadership that will begin in July 2011 and be completed by the end of 2014. To carry out U.S. policy, a total of 51,000 additional U.S. forces were authorized by the two 2009 reviews, bringing U.S. troop numbers to their current level of about 99,000, with partner forces adding about 42,000. On June 22, 2011, President Obama announced that the policy had accomplished most major U.S. goals and that a drawdown of 33,000 U.S. troops would take place by September 2012. The first 10,000 of these are to be withdrawn by the end of 2011, of which 5,000 will return home in July 2011 in concert with the start of a longplanned transition to Afghan security leadership. That transition will start in four cities and three full provinces. Amid widespread doubts that Afghan governance and security institutions will be strong enough to protect themselves by that time, U.S. officials say that the U.S. intent is for a long-term relationship with Afghanistan that might include U.S. military involvement long after 2014."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-06-28
• Afghanistan: Politics, Elections, and Government Performance [July 13, 2011]

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  "The limited capacity and widespread corruption of all levels of Afghan governance are factors in debate over the effectiveness of U.S. policy in Afghanistan and in implementing a transition to Afghan security leadership. That transition is to be completed by the end of 2014, a timeframe agreed to by the United States, its international partners, and the Afghan government. […] Broader issues of human rights often vary depending on the security environment in particular regions, although some trends prevail nationwide. The State Department human rights report for 2010 attributes many of the human rights abuses in Afghanistan to overall lack of security, traditional conservative attitudes that are widely prevalent, and the weakness of government control over outlying localities. Women have made substantial gains in government and the private sector since the fall of the Taliban but many organizations report substantial backsliding, particularly in areas where the insurgency operates. Traditional attitudes also continue to prevail, slowing of efforts to curb such practices as child marriages and contributing to court judgments against converts from Islam to Christianity and cleric-driven curbs on the sale of alcohol and Western-oriented programming in the burgeoning Afghan media. See also CRS Report RL30588, Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman; CRS Report R40747, United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan: Background and Policy Issues, by Rhoda Margesson; and CRS Report R41484, Afghanistan: U.S. Rule of Law and Justice Sector Assistance, by Liana Sun Wyler and Kenneth Katzman."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-07-13
• Universal Service Fund: Background and Options for Reform [June 30, 2011]

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  "The concept that all Americans should be able to afford access to the telecommunications network, commonly called the 'universal service concept' can trace its origins back to the 1934 Communications Act. Since then, the preservation and advancement of universal service has been a basic tenet of federal communications policy, and Congress has historically played an active role in helping to preserve and advance universal service goals. The passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-104) not only codified the universal service concept, but also led to the establishment, in 1997, of a federal Universal Service Fund (USF or Fund) to meet the universal service objectives and principles contained in the 1996 act. According to Fund administrators, from 1998 through end of year 2010, $73.7 billion was distributed, or committed, by the USF, with all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and all territories receiving some benefit. […] It is anticipated that Universal Service Fund reform will continue to be a topic of congressional interest. The House Energy and Commerce Committee and the Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee have included USF reform on their agendas of issues for consideration and oversight. Two measures (S. 297, H.R. 2163) relating to USF have been introduced to date. S. 297 amends Section 254 of the Communications Act of 1934 to provide for a permanent exemption for the USF from the Antideficiency Act. H.R. 2163 expands the USF's Lifeline program to provide discounts, to eligible subscribers, for broadband Internet service. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gilroy, Angele A.

  2011-06-30
• Debt Limit: History and Recent Increases [July 1, 2011]

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  "Total debt of the federal government can increase in two ways. First, debt increases when the government sells debt to the public to finance budget deficits and acquire the financial resources needed to meet its obligations. This increases debt held by the public. Second, debt increases when the federal government issues debt to certain government accounts, such as the Social Security, Medicare, and Transportation trust funds, in exchange for their reported surpluses. This increases debt held by government accounts. The sum of debt held by the public and debt held by government accounts is the total federal debt. Surpluses reduce debt held by the public, while deficits raise it. Total federal debt outstanding was $14,344 billion on June 29, 2011. The U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner announced that the federal debt reached its statutory limit on May 16, 2011, and that he had declared a debt issuance suspension period, allowing certain extraordinary measures to extend Treasury's borrowing capacity until early August 2011. Since May 16, debt subject to limit has been held just below $14,294 billion. Funding federal operations could soon become complicated without a debt limit increase. […] On January 28, the Senate passed an amended version of H.J.Res. 45, which the House passed on February 4 and the President signed on February 12 (P.L. 111-139), raising the limit to $14,294 billion. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Austin, D. Andrew; Levit, Mindy R.

  2011-07-01
• China's Economic Conditions [June 24, 2011]

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  "Prior to the initiation of economic reforms and trade liberalization 32 years ago, China maintained policies that kept the economy very poor, stagnant, centrally controlled, vastly inefficient, and relatively isolated from the global economy. Since opening up to foreign trade and investment in 1979, China has been one of the world's fastest-growing economies and has emerged as a major economic and trade power. China's rapid economic growth has sharply improved Chinese living standards and helped raise hundreds of millions of people out of extreme poverty. In 2010, China was the world's second largest economy, largest merchandise exporter, second largest merchandise importer, second largest recipient of foreign direct investment (FDI), and largest holder of foreign exchange reserves. […] On the one hand, China is a large (and potentially huge) export market for the United States. Many U.S. firms use China as the final point of assembly in their global supply chain networks. China's large holdings of U.S. Treasury securities help the federal government finance its budget deficits and keep U.S. interest rates low. However, some analysts contend that China maintains a number of distortive economic policies (such as an undervalued currency and protectionist industrial policies) that undermine U.S. economic interests. They warn that efforts by the Chinese government to promote the development of indigenous innovation and technology could mean that Chinese firms will increasingly pose a 'competitive challenge' to many leading U.S. industries. This report surveys the rise of China's economy, describes major economic challenges facing China, and discusses the implications of China's economic development for the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morrison, Wayne M.

  2011-06-24
• USAID Global Health Programs: FY2001-FY2012 Request [June 30, 2011]

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  "A number of U.S. agencies and departments implement U.S. government global health interventions. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) plays a particularly central role. The agency is responsible for coordinating two important presidential health initiatives--the President's Malaria Initiative (PMI) and the Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) Program. USAID serves as an implementing agency of the largest U.S. global health program-- the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)--and is set to assume leadership over the Global Health Initiative (GHI) in September 2012 (presuming it meets a set of benchmarks related to management capacity, as outlined in the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review). In addition, Congress appropriates the most funds to USAID for global health efforts, excluding provisions for presidential health initiatives, which are carried out by several agencies, including USAID. […] There is a growing consensus that U.S. global health assistance needs to become more efficient and effective. There is some debate, however, on the best strategies. This report explains the role USAID plays in U.S. global health assistance, highlights how much the agency has spent on global health efforts from FY2001 to FY2012, discusses how funding to each of its programs has changed during this period, and raises some related policy questions. For more information on all U.S. global health assistance, see CRS Report R41851, U.S. Global Health Assistance: Background and Issues for the 112th Congress, by Tiaji Salaam-Blyther and Alexandra E. Kendall."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji

  2011-06-30
• Africa: U.S. Foreign Assistance Issues [June 29, 2011]

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  "U.S. aid to Africa initially reached a peak in 1985, when global competition with the Soviet Union was at a high point. After the cold war ended, security assistance levels for Africa began to decline. In 1995, at the outset of the 104th Congress, substantial reductions in aid to Africa had been anticipated, as many questioned the importance of Africa to U.S. national security interests in the post-cold war era. As the debate went forward, however, congressional reports and bills emphasized U.S. humanitarian, economic, and other interests in Africa. Aid levels did fall, but gradually began to increase again in FY1997. U.S. assistance to Africa is reaching new highs due to a significant increase in health care sectors under the Global Health and Child Survival (GHCS) program. U.S. aid to Africa nearly quadrupled from $1.2 billion in FY2006 to $6.7 billion in FY2010. Moreover, the United States is the leading donor of humanitarian assistance to Africa. Between FY1999 and FY2009, the United States provided over $10.1 billion to East and Central African countries and an estimated $2.2 billion to Southern Africa countries. […] Total U.S. foreign assistance to Africa for FY2009 was $8.2 billion. More than half of the FY2009 funding went to health-related programs. Sub-Saharan Africa received an estimated $8.09 billion in FY2010. The Obama Administration has requested an estimated $7.6 billion for FY2011 and $7.7 billion for FY2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2011-06-29
• Biofuels Incentives: A Summary of Federal Programs [July 7, 2011]

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  "Ethanol and biodiesel, the two most widely used biofuels, receive significant government support under federal law in the form of mandated fuel use, tax incentives, loan and grant programs, and certain regulatory requirements. The 22 programs and provisions listed in this report have been established over the past three decades, and are administered by five separate agencies and departments: Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Energy, Internal Revenue Service, and Customs and Border Protection. These programs target a variety of beneficiaries, including farmers and rural small businesses, biofuel producers, petroleum suppliers, and fuel marketers. Arguably, in prior years the most significant federal programs for biofuels have been tax credits for the production or sale of ethanol and biodiesel. However, with the establishment of the renewable fuel standard (RFS) under P.L. 109-58, Congress has mandated biofuels use; P.L. 110-140 significantly expanded that mandate. In the long term, the mandate may prove even more significant than tax incentives in promoting the use of these fuels. […] This report outlines federal programs that provide direct or indirect incentives for biofuels. For each program described, the report provides details including administering agency, authorizing statute(s), annual funding, and expiration date. The Appendix provides summary information in a table format."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2011-07-01
• Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated August 10, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "This report reviews the status of energy efficiency and renewable energy legislation introduced during the 110th Congress. Most Senate action led to the Senate version of H.R. 6, an omnibus energy bill that the Senate passed on June 21, 2007. Most House action led to the omnibus energy bill H.R. 3221, which the House passed on August 4, 2007. A second area of focus has been on the funding-related bills for energy efficiency and renewable energy, especially H.R. 2641, the Energy and Water Appropriations bill for FY2008."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sissine, Fred J.; Gillis, Anne; Gurevitz, Mark

  2007-08-10
• Closing the Guantanamo Detention Center: Legal Issues [July 6, 2011]

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  "Following the terrorist attacks of 9/11, Congress passed the Authorization to Use Military Force (AUMF), which granted the President the authority 'to use all necessary and appropriate force against those ... [who] planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks' against the United States. Many persons subsequently captured during military operations in Afghanistan and elsewhere were transferred to the U.S. Naval Station at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, for detention and possible prosecution before military tribunals. […] This report provides an overview of major legal issues likely to arise as a result of executive and legislative action to close the Guantanamo detention facility. It discusses legal issues related to the transfer of Guantanamo detainees (either to a foreign country or into the United States), the continued detention of such persons in the United States, and the possible removal of persons brought into the country. It also discusses selected constitutional issues that may arise in the criminal prosecution of detainees, emphasizing the procedural and substantive protections that are utilized in different adjudicatory forums (i.e., federal civilian courts, court-martial proceedings, and military commissions)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Elsea, Jennifer; Garcia, Michael John; Mason, R. Chuck . . .

  2011-07-06
• Brazil's WTO Case Against the U.S. Cotton Program [June 21, 2011]

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  "The so-called 'Brazil cotton case' is a long-running World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement case (DS267) initiated by Brazil--a major cotton export competitor--in 2002 against specific provisions of the U.S. cotton program. In September 2004, a WTO dispute settlement panel found that certain U.S. agricultural support payments and guarantees--including (1) payments to cotton producers under the marketing loan and counter-cyclical programs, and (2) export credit guarantees under the GSM-102 program--were inconsistent with WTO commitments. In 2005, the United States made several changes to both its cotton and GSM-102 programs in an attempt to bring them into compliance with WTO recommendations. However, Brazil argued that the U.S. response was inadequate. A WTO compliance panel ruled in favor of Brazil's non-compliance charge against the United States in December 2007, and the ruling was upheld on appeal in June 2008. […] A further U.S. commitment, made under the April MOU, includes modification of the animal disease status of the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina to allow products such as pork and live swine exports into the United States. These U.S. commitments are intended to delay any trade retaliation until after the 2012 farm bill, when potential changes to U.S. domestic cotton subsidies will be evaluated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-

  2011-06-21
• Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy [July 7, 2011]

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  "Protests that erupted in Bahrain following the uprising that overthrew Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak on February 11, 2011, demonstrate that Shiite grievances over the distribution of power and economic opportunities were not satisfied by relatively limited efforts to include the Shiite majority in governance. Most Sunnis in Bahrain believe the Shiite majority will be satisfied with nothing less than outright rule. As protests escalated in March 2011, Bahrain's government, contrary to the advice of the Obama Administration, invited security assistance from other neighboring Gulf Cooperation Council countries, declared a state of emergency, and moved to forcefully end large demonstrations and arrest dissident leaders. Although the state of emergency was ended on June 1, some believe that continued arrests of dissidents have reduced prospects for a negotiated political solution in Bahrain. Others are optimistic that a national dialogue, which began on July 2, 2011, will produce a negotiated solution and that the challenge to the pro-U.S. regime will abate. […] Fueling Shiite unrest is the fact that Bahrain, having largely run out of crude oil reserves, is poorer than most of the other Persian Gulf monarchies. The country has tried to compensate through diversification, particularly with banking and some manufacturing. In September 2004, the United States and Bahrain signed a free trade agreement (FTA); legislation implementing it was signed January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169). The unrest in 2011 has further strained Bahrain's economy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-07-07
• Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal [June 22, 2011]

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  "Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, health, and environmental grounds. Although civilian radioactive waste encompasses a wide range of materials, most of the current debate focuses on highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) calls for disposal of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository. NWPA established the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM) in the Department of Energy (DOE) to develop such a repository, which would be licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The program's civilian costs were required to be covered by a fee on nuclear-generated electricity, paid into the Nuclear Waste Fund. Amendments to NWPA in 1987 restricted DOE's repository site studies to Yucca Mountain in Nevada. […] For FY2012, the Administration again requested no funding for the Yucca Mountain project, but the House Appropriations Committee provided $25 million to DOE and $10 million to NRC to continue the Yucca Mountain licensing process. The Committee bill specifies that the funds may not be used for closing out licensing activities unless the NRC commissioners accept DOE's license withdrawal motion, 'or for actions that irrevocably remove the possibility that Yucca Mountain may be a repository option in the future.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Holt, Mark

  2011-06-22
• War Powers Litigation Initiated by Members of Congress Since the Enactment of the War Powers Resolution [June 22, 2011]

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  "Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution confers on Congress the power to 'declare War.' Modern Presidents, however, have contended that, notwithstanding this clause, they do not need congressional authorization to use force. Partly in response to that contention, and because of widespread concern that Congress had allowed its war power to atrophy in the Korean and Vietnam conflicts, Congress in 1973 enacted the War Powers Resolution (WPR, P.L. 93-148). Among other things, the WPR generally requires the President to report to Congress within 48 hours when, absent a declaration of war, U.S. Armed Forces are introduced into 'hostilities or ... situations where imminent involvement in hostilities is clearly indicated by the circumstances.' After a report is submitted or required to be submitted, the WPR requires that the forces be withdrawn within 60 days (90 days in specified circumstances) unless Congress declares war or otherwise authorizes their continued involvement. […] This report summarizes the seven cases initiated by Members of Congress in which final rulings were reached, which concerned U.S. military activities in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Grenada; military action taken during the Persian Gulf conflict between Iraq and Iran; U.S. activities in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait (prior to the congressional authorization); and U.S. participation in NATO's action in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. This report also briefly discusses the current legal challenge to enjoin further military action against Libya, and discusses more generally the debate surrounding the WPR's application to these military operations. This report will be updated as circumstances warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garcia, Michael John

  2011-06-22
• Sustainability of the Federal Budget Deficit: Market Confidence and Economic Effects [June 28, 2011]

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  "The budget deficit was more than $1 trillion or 9% of GDP [Gross Domestic Product] in 2009 and 2010, and it is projected to be that large again in 2011. Combined with a shrinking economy, this increased the publicly held federal debt by over 20 percentage points of GDP between 2008 and 2010, and it is projected to increase it by another 7 percentage points in 2011. Deficits of this size are not sustainable in the long run because the federal debt cannot indefinitely grow faster than output. Over time, a greater and greater share of national income would be devoted to servicing the debt, until eventually the government would be forced to finance the debt through money creation or default. Although the debt cannot persistently rise relative to GDP, it can rise for a time. It is hard to predict at what point bond holders would deem it to be unsustainable. A few other advanced economies have debt-to-GDP ratios higher than that of the United States. Some of those countries in Europe have recently seen their financing costs rise to the point that they are unable to finance their deficits solely through private markets. But Japan has the highest debt-to-GDP ratio of any advanced economy, and it has continued to be able to finance its debt at extremely low costs. […] This report will evaluate current concerns about the sustainability of the deficit, and what effects it will have on the economy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Labonte, Marc

  2011-06-28
• Hedge Fund Speculation and Oil Prices [June 29, 2011]

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  "Dramatic swings in crude oil prices have led Congress to examine the functioning of the markets where prices are set. A particular concern is that financial speculators may at times drive prices above the level justified by supply and demand. Most oil speculators do not produce or take delivery of commercial quantities of oil; rather, they trade financial contracts whose value is linked to the price of oil. These derivative contracts--futures, options, and swaps--allow speculators to profit if they can forecast price trends or exploit new arbitrage opportunities. Derivatives also permit oil companies, airlines, utilities, and other energy-consuming or energy-producing firms to reduce or 'hedge' price risk by locking in today's price for transactions that will occur in the future. Hedgers and speculators trade on regulated futures exchanges in a continuous auction market. Prices set there serve as benchmarks for many physical oil transactions. […] This report examines the relationship between the price of oil and the positions of various classes of traders in crude oil futures and options. Position data come from the Commitments of Traders report, published weekly by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC). A statistically significant correlation is evident between changes in positions held by 'money managers' (a category of speculators that includes hedge funds) and the price of oil. In other words, during weeks when money managers have been net buyers of oil futures and options (or increased the size of their long positions), the price has tended to rise."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jickling, Mark; Austin, D. Andrew

  2011-06-29
• Statutory Budget Controls in Effect Between 1985 and 2002 [July 1, 2011]

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  "Between 1985 and 2002, several statutory budget controls were enacted to reduce the budget deficit. Chief among these were the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 and the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990. The mechanisms included in these acts sought to supplement and modify the existing budget process, and also added statutory budget controls, in some cases seeking to require future deficit reduction legislation, and in some cases seeking to preserve deficit reduction achieved in accompanying legislation. The Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985, known as the Gramm- Rudman-Hollings Act, was passed during a period of growing deficits, as part of legislation to increase the debt limit. The act did not include legislation that reduced the deficit, but instead established a statutory requirement for the gradual reduction and elimination of budget deficits over a six-year period. The act specified annual deficit limits and set forth a specific process for the cancellation of spending by executive order, known as a sequester order, to enforce the annual deficit limit in the event that compliance was not achieved through legislation. The deficit targets and timetable were modified and extended in the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Reaffirmation Act of 1987. […] This report provides information on the basic operation of the budgetary controls and will be updated as warranted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lynch, Megan Suzanne

  2011-07-01