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Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1989-1996 [August 13, 1997]
"This report provides unclassified background data from U.S. government sources on transfers of conventional arms to developing nations by major suppliers for the period 1989 through 1996. It also includes some data on world-wide supplier transactions. It updates and revises the report entitled 'Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1988-1995,' by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) on August 15, 1995 (CRS Report 96-677F). The data in the report illustrate how global patterns of conventional arms transfers have changed in the post-Cold War and post-Persian Gulf War years. Relationships between arms suppliers and recipients continue to evolve in reaction to changing political, military, and economic circumstances. Despite global changes since the Cold War's end, the developing world continues to be the primary focus of foreign arms sales activity by conventional weapons suppliers. During the period of this report, 1989-1996, conventional arms transfers to developing nations have comprised 67.5% of the value of all international arms transfers. More recently, arms transfer agreements, which represent orders for future delivery, have shifted slightly from the developing nations. But the portion of agreements with developing countries still constituted 63.2% of all agreements globally from 1993-1996. In 1996, arms transfer agreements, comprised 61% of the value of all such agreements globally. In the period from 1993-1996, deliveries of conventional arms to developing nations represented 70.9% of the value of all international arms deliveries. In 1996, arms deliveries to developing nations constituted over 73.9% of the value of all such arms deliveries worldwide."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1997-08-13
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Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1990-1997 [July 31, 1998]
"This report is prepared annually to provide unclassified quantitative data on conventional arms transfers to developing nations by the United States and foreign countries for the preceding eight calendar years. This report covers the years from 1990-1997. It also provides some data on worldwide conventional arms transfers for the same time period, but the principal focus is on data illustrating the levels of such arms transfers by major weapons suppliers to nations in the developing world. Data on deliveries by key suppliers of fourteen categories of conventional weapons systems is also included for 1990- 1997. The data in the report show how global patterns of conventional arms transfers have changed in the post-Cold War and post-Persian Gulf War years. Despite world changes since the Cold War's end, the developing nations continue to be the primary focus of foreign transfer activity by conventional weapons suppliers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1998-07-31
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Conventional Arms Transfers in the Post-Cold War Era [September 28, 1993]
"Conventional arms transfers in the post-Cold War Era are likely to be notably different from those that occurred prior to the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the reunification of Germany, and the subsequent outbreak of ethnic and regional conflicts. This report reviews some of the recent changes in conventional arms transfer patterns, discusses some of the possible near term trends in conventional arms transfers, and notes some implications of these prospective trends."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1993-09-28
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Conventional Arms Transfers to the Third World, 1984-1991 [July 20, 1992]
"The major political transitions wrought by the end of the Cold War continued in 1991, resulting in a significant impact on the Third World arms marketplace. The disintegration of the Soviet Union contributed to a sharp fall in Soviet arms agreements, while the United States remained the leader in arms sales to the Third World. The U.N. embargo against Iraq dropped Baghdad from being one of the largest Third World arms purchasers, leading to intense competition among former suppliers for new arms deals elsewhere. Reductions in domestic defense spending in many nations became a matter of acute concern to their weapons exporting industries. Further, in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf war, a number of initiatives were launched to control destabilizing conventional arms transfers, especially to the Near East region. The value of all arms transfer agreements with the Third World in 1991 was $24.7 billion. This was by far the lowest yearly total, calculated in either nominal or real terms, for any of the years during the 1984-1991 period. The general decline in the value of new arms transfer agreements with the Third World seen in recent years was dramatically reversed in 1990 as the result of major new arms agreements related to the Gulf War. However, in 1991, the pattern of overall decline in the value of arms transfer agreements with the Third World resumed in an equally dramatic fashion."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1992-07-20
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Conventional Arms Transfers to the Third World, 1985-1992 [July 19, 1993]
"The major political and economic transitions wrought by the end of the Cold War continued in 1992, resulting in a significant impact on the Third World arms marketplace. The formal dissolution of the Soviet Union contributed to a sharp fall in Russia's arms agreements, while the United States remained the undisputed leader in arms sales to the Third World. Continued reductions in domestic defense spending in many nations became a matter of acute concern to their weapons exporting industries, leading to intense competition among suppliers for new arms deals throughout the globe. Despite initial optimism about their prospects, talks aimed at controlling destabilizing conventional arms transfers to the Near East region, in the wake of the Persian Gulf war, did not produce a major new control regime."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1993-07-19
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Conventional Arms Transfers to the Third World, 1983-1990 [August 2, 1991]
"The general decline in the value of new arms transfer agreements with the Third World seen in recent years was reversed in 1990. The value of all arms transfer agreements with the Third World in 1990 was $41.3 billion. This was the first year since 1987 that the total value of arms transfer agreements with the Third World increased over the previous year (in constant 1990 dollars). At the same time, in 1990 the value of all arms deliveries to the Third World ($26.3 billion) was the lowest of any year during the period from 1983-1990. This is the third consecutive year since 1987 that the value of all arms deliveries to the Third World dropped significantly (in constant 1990 dollars). The Soviet Union and the United States have dominated the Third World arms market as the top two suppliers from 1983-1990. Collectively, the two superpowers accounted for over 60% of all arms transfer agreements with and arms deliveries to the Third World during these years. In 1990, the total value, in real terms, of U.S. arms transfer agreements with the Third World increased dramatically from the previous year's total, rising from nearly $8 billion in 1989 to $18.5 billion in 1990. For the first time since 1983, the United States ranked first in arms transfer agreements with the Third World. The U.S. share of the value of all such agreements was 44.8% in 1990, up from 23.6% in 1989."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
1991-08-02
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Abortion Services and Military Medical Facilities [November 29, 2006]
"In 1993, President Clinton modified the military policy on providing abortions at military medical facilities. Under the change directed by the President, military medical facilities were allowed to perform abortions if paid for entirely with non- Department of Defense (DOD) funds (i.e., privately funded). Although arguably consistent with statutory language barring the use of Defense Department funds, the President's policy overturned a former interpretation of existing law barring the availability of these services. On December 1, 1995, H.R. 2126, the FY1996 DOD appropriations act, became law (P.L. 104-61). Included in this law was language barring the use of funds to administer any policy that permits the performance of abortions at any DOD facility except where the life of the mother would be endangered if the fetus were carried to term or where the pregnancy resulted from an act of rape or incest. Language was also included in the FY1996 DOD Authorization Act (P.L. 104-106, February 10, 1996) prohibiting the use of DOD facilities in the performance of abortions. These served to reverse the President's 1993 policy change. Recent attempts to change or modify these laws have failed. […] With the enactment of P.L. 104-61 and P.L. 104-106, these questions became moot, because now, neither DOD funds nor facilities may be used to administer any policy that provides for abortions at any DOD facility, except where the life of the mother may be endangered if the fetus were carried to term. Privately-funded abortions at military facilities are permitted when the pregnancy was the result of an act of rape or incest. An amendment to the House version of the FY2007 National Defense Authorization Act would allow DOD facilities outside the U.S. to perform privately funded abortions. This language was rejected."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Burrelli, David F., 1958-
2006-11-29
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Gasoline Price Surge Revisited: Crude Oil and Refinery Issues [April 8, 2004]
"Since late 2002, gasoline prices have been extremely volatile, with the national average spiking above $1.70 three times. Most recently, the nationwide pump price of regular fuel set a new record, exceeding $1.75 per gallon. Prices in some states -- at $2.15, California stands out -- are much above the average. In addition to the set of market forces applicable to pump prices in the United States, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) announced a supply cut effective in April. At a minimum, this underpins very high crude oil prices, which are a component of the current pump price situation. Beyond higher crude oil prices, gasoline prices are strongly influenced by the supply and demand situation at the pump. Since 1999, the only growth in U.S. oil consumption has been increased gasoline demand, which has risen by 500,000 barrels per day to a current annual average of 8.9 million barrels per day. While this might seem to be a relatively small amount, it has translated directly into increased demand for foreign gasoline, since U.S. refineries have not added capacity as gasoline demand has grown. Demand for imported gasoline now exceeds one million barrels per day."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert; Kumins, Lawrence C.
2004-04-08
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Mandatory Spending Since 1962 [November 30, 2006]
"Mandatory spending encompasses federal government spending on entitlement programs and food stamps as well as other budget outlays controlled by laws other than appropriation acts. Entitlement programs constitute the bulk of mandatory spending. More specifically, mandatory spending programs include Social Security, Medicare, temporary assistance to needy families (TANF), supplemental security income (SSI), unemployment insurance, veterans benefits, federal employee retirement and disability, food stamps, and the earned income tax credit. In all, federal spending accounts for about a fifth of gross domestic product (GDP), and mandatory spending accounts for over half of total federal spending. […] With discretionary spending as a percentage of GDP reduced to historic lows, any significant reductions in federal spending may well need to come from mandatory spending. Since Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid account for most of the long-term increases in federal spending, these programs are likely to be considered for possible reductions. Focusing budget cuts on these three key programs, however, could compromise their goals: the economic security of the elderly and the poor. Fundamental reform may be proposed to eliminate the long-term fiscal strains while preserving the goals of these programs. This report will be updated annually."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Austin, D. Andrew
2006-11-30
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ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [December 6, 2006]
"The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends special duty treatment to certain U.S. imports from Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru that meet domestic content and other requirements. The ATPA (Title II of P.L. 102-182) was enacted on December 4, 1991, and renewed and modified under the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA; title XXI of P.L. 107-210) on August 6, 2002. ATPA was intended to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. Duty-free benefits under the ATPDEA are scheduled to end on December 31, 2006. Measures have been introduced in the 109th Congress to extend the Andean trade preferences program until 2008 (H.R. 6076 and S. 3904). This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Villarreal, M. Angeles
2006-12-06
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Congress and the Courts: Current Policy Issues [September 20, 2005]
"Federal courts, like Congress and the presidency, are important forums for resolving the political, economic, and social conflicts that characterize American society. […] The American constitutional system of separate institutions sharing power inevitably produces tension between Congress and the courts. Conflicts between Congress and federal courts are common when the elective branches are called to account by decisions of the nonelective judicial branch, composed of judges with lifetime tenure. The purposes of this report are to examine the Congress-court connection along several discrete, but overlapping, dimensions. First, the constitutional authority of Congress and the judiciary is summarized briefly. Second, the report highlights the court's role as legislative-executive 'umpire' and federal-state 'referee' in our constitutional system. Third, the report discusses the court's part in statutory interpretation as well as the diverse ways Congress may 'check and balance' the judiciary. Fourth, the paper reviews several current controversies associated with the judicial nominations process. Fifth, the state of play with respect to the so-called 'nuclear' or 'constitutional' option for ending judicial filibusters is discussed along with the compromise that so far has averted use of this procedural maneuver in the Senate. Finally, the report closes with several observations about the judicial nominations process. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Oleszek, Walter J.
2005-09-20
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Hurricane Katrina-Stafford Act Authorities and Actions by Governor Blanco and President Bush to Trigger Them [September 12, 2005]
"This memorandum is in response to your request that we examine 'the applicable law and legal requests pertaining to Hurricane Katrina, and confirm whether or not the necessary steps were taken to give the Federal Government in general, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in particular, the legal authority needed to act to save lives and mitigate the damage stemming from Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana.' We begin by reviewing the mechanisms provided in the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act [...] (Stafford Act) for the declaration of a major disaster and for the declaration of an emergency, and note the scope of the federal response authorized under each type of declaration. We then note the official requests by President George W. Bush in connection with declarations of emergency and major disaster."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2005-09-12
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Federal R&D Funding Under a Continuing Resolution [November 21, 2006]
"On November 17, 2006, President Bush signed a continuing resolution, or CR (P.L. 109-369, H.J.Res. 100) which provides spending at FY2006 levels (through December 8, 2006), for those agencies lacking enacted FY2007 appropriations bills. The House has passed 10 of its 11 appropriations bills, and the Senate has passed 3 of its 12 appropriations bills (the Senate Appropriations Committee has passed its remaining 9 appropriation bills). Congress has passed two appropriations bills, the Department of Defense (P.L. 109-289, H.Rept. 109-676) and the Department of Homeland Security (P.L. 109-295, H.Rept. 109-699). Based on these current House and Senate actions, total federal R&D [research and development] could reach an estimated $140 billion for FY2007. The centerpiece of the President's proposed FY2007 R&D budget is the American Competitiveness Initiative (ACI). The President proposed this initiative in response to growing concerns about America's ability to compete in the technological global marketplace."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davey, Michael E. (Michael Earl), 1947-
2006-11-21
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USA PATRIOT Act Reauthorization in Brief [August 10, 2005]
"Both Houses have approved proposals to reauthorize USA PATRIOT Act sections scheduled to expire at the end of the year. […] This is a sketch of those bills and how they differ. Their common provisions deal mostly with expanded federal authority under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) and the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA). The bills make permanent all but two of the temporary USA PATRIOT Act sections. They postpone the expiration of the two, dealing with FISA roving wiretaps and the so-call library or business records authority. In these two, the national security letter statutes, and some of the other USA PATRIOT Act provisions make sometimes parallel and sometimes individualistic adjustments. H.R. 3199 contains a number of features not found in S. 1389 including a first responder grant program, new capital offenses and adjusted capital punishment procedures, sections that in large measure replicate the seaport crimes portions of S. 378 (as reported), a substantial expansion in federal forfeiture authority in terrorism and money laundering cases, and expansion of federal wiretapping authority to embrace investigations into twenty crimes for which the authority did not previously exist. A more detailed version of this report is available as CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33027, 'USA PATRIOT Act: Background and Comparison of House- and Senate-approved Reauthorization and Related Legislative Action'."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2005-08-10
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Emergency Supplemental Appropriations for Hurricane Katrina Relief [September 7, 2005]
"In response to the widespread destruction brought to the Gulf Coast by Hurricane Katrina, the 109th Congress completed action on a $10.5 billion emergency supplemental bill (P.L. 109-61, H.R. 3645), as requested by the Administration. The President submitted the request on September 1, 2005. Both chambers approved it within 24 hours, and it was signed into law on September 2, 2005. Of the amount provided, $10 billion is for the ongoing efforts of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to provide emergency food, shelter, and medical care to flooded regions; $500 million is for the Department of Defense to defray the cost of deploying military personnel to the region for rescue and relief, and for other response costs. The Administration has stated that additional requests for supplemental funding will be made in the weeks ahead, as loss and recovery estimates become available. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lake, Jennifer E.; Chite, Ralph M.
2005-09-07
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Compensating State and Local Governments for the Tax-Exempt Status of Federal Lands: What is Fair and Consistent? [March 22, 2012]
"The federal government owns significant amounts of land and resources that are exempt from state and local taxation. State and local governments provide a wide variety of services-- education, social services, public safety, transportation facilities, utilities, and much more. These services are funded through intergovernmental transfers (federal grants to state governments and federal and state grants to local governments), user fees, and state and local levied taxation-- property taxes, income taxes, sales and use taxes, excise taxes, severance taxes, and more. Congress has established programs to compensate state and local governments for the tax-exempt status of federal lands. Some propose that 'fair' compensation would provide payments that are equivalent to the taxes that would be paid if the lands were privately owned. Assessing such tax equivalency, however, is difficult because of the substantial variability in state and local reliance on and rates for the various types of taxes. Others suggest that 'fair' compensation would provide payments that offset the costs imposed on state and local governments from the federal lands, although this would exclude payments for governmental services that are not paid by the beneficiaries (e.g., social services). Providing consistent payments is a challenge; permanent appropriations are the most stable, but are difficult to establish and create permanent obligations. Finally, which lands to include for federal payments may seem straightforward, but lack of precise data on the federal lands might compromise accuracy of payments, and federal responsibility for tax-exempt Indian lands is unclear."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gorte, Ross W.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-
2012-03-22
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Unauthorized Employment of Aliens: Basics of Employer Sanctions [June 29, 2005]
"The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) sought to end unauthorized employment by imposing penalties on employers who knowingly hire or continue to employ aliens not authorized to work in the United States (e.g., illegal aliens and foreign tourists). The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA) amended some of the provisions of IRCA by reducing the number of acceptable documents for completion of the Employment Eligibility Verification form (I-9) purposes, providing employers with the possibility of a good-faith defense against technical paperwork violations and providing some protection for employers who are part of multi-employer associations. This report summarizes the employer sanctions. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Alison M., 1962-
2005-06-29
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Kurds in Post-Saddam Iraq [March 14, 2005]
"Iraq's Kurdish community, essentially unrepresented in and repressed by previous Iraqi governments, is emerging as a major force in post-Saddam Iraq. The Kurdish-inhabited regions of northern Iraq are relatively free of insurgent activity and reconstruction is proceeding there. The Kurds are also flourishing politically through recent national elections, raising concerns that the Kurds might use their new political strength to serve their own interests at the expense of a unified Iraq. This report may be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth; Prados, Alfred B.
2005-03-14
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Identity Theft: The Internet Connection [March 16, 2005]
"Concern is growing about identity theft -- where one person assumes the identity of another by stealing personally identifiable information (PII), such as credit card or Social Security numbers. High profile incidents disclosed in early 2005 involving ChoicePoint, Bank of America, and LexisNexis, where the PII of more than a million Americans may have been compromised, have refocused congressional attention on this issue. Many associate the rise in identity theft cases with the Internet, but surveys indicate that comparatively few victims cite the Internet as the source of their stolen PII. Still, the Internet may play a role, particularly through a practice known as 'phishing.' Congress already has passed several laws to address identity theft, and continues to debate whether additional action is needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-03-16
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Iraq's New Security Forces: The Challenge of Sectarian and Ethnic Influences [March 25, 2005]
"This report analyzes the prospects for rebuilding an inclusive Iraqi security force that transcends Iraq's various ethnic and sectarian communities. U.S. policymakers and Iraqi officials aim to create a unified Iraqi security force; however, the predominately Sunni Arab insurgency has hampered this effort, and many believe that the new Iraqi security agencies will ultimately be composed of mostly Shiite and Kurdish recruits with the Kurds also separately maintaining their own militias. As Iraqi officials attempt to build a pluralistic political system in the aftermath of successful parliamentary elections, an important challenge will be rebuilding an inclusive Iraqi security force that does not exacerbate relations between Iraq's ethnic/religious communities and increase the likelihood of civil war. Through past supplemental appropriations, Congress has funded the training and equipping of the new Iraqi security forces. The FY2005 supplemental spending request seeks $5.7 billion to train the Iraqi security forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2005-03-25
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Fact Sheet on Leaders and Elections [October 26, 2006]
"This fact sheet tracks the current heads of government in Central and South America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, and provides the dates of the last and next election for head of government. It also provides the national independence date for each country."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Gomez, Julissa
2006-10-26
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Guantanamo Detention Center: Legislative Activity in the 111th Congress [December 9, 2010]
"To date in the 111th Congress, provisions directly relating to Guantanamo detainees have been enacted as part of eight laws: the 2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32); the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-83); the 2010 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 111-84); the Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-88); the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-117); the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-118); the Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-212) and the Intelligence Authorization Act for FY2010 (P.L. 111-259). Most of these measures impose general restrictions on the use or availability of funds to transfer or release Guantanamo detainees into the United States, though they also provide an exception permitting transfers for purposes of criminal prosecution or detention during legal proceedings if certain reporting requirements are fulfilled. Although the 2010 fiscal year has ended, Congress has passed continuing resolutions that extended funding for federal agencies at the FY2010 enacted spending levels first through December 3, 2010 (P.L. 111- 242), and then through December 18, 2010 (P.L. 111-290). The Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (H.R. 3082), which was agreed to by the House on December 8, 2010, would prohibit any funds made available under it or any prior act from being used to transfer or release a Guantanamo detainee into the United States, its territories, or possessions. It would also bar funds provided to the Department of Justice from being used to acquire any facility for use in detaining any person who was held at Guantanamo as of June 24, 2009. The FY2011 defense authorization measures--S. 3454 and the House-passed H.R. 5136--would also extend or expand restrictions on detainee transfers. The House-passed Military Construction and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2011 (H.R. 5822), would bar the funds it appropriates or makes available from being used to renovate or construct a facility within the continental United States to house Guantanamo detainees. [...] This report analyzes relevant provisions in enacted legislation and selected pending bills."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John
2010-12-09
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Potential Trade Implications of Restrictions on Antimicrobial Use in Animal Production [December 8, 2010]
"Growing concerns about antimicrobial resistance have caused some U.S. trading partners and competitors to implement restrictions and prohibitions on the use of certain antimicrobials for subtherapeutic or nontherapeutic purposes in animal production. Although antibiotic use in animals has not been a significant factor affecting U.S. trade in meat products to date, evidence suggests that country restrictions on the use of these drugs could become an issue in the future and could affect U.S. export markets for livestock and poultry products. [...] In the United States, legislation has been introduced that seeks to restrict the use of certain antimicrobial drugs for subtherapeutic or nontherapeutic purposes in food-producing animals. In the 111th Congress, the leading bill was the Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2009 (H.R. 1549; S. 619). Most U.S. livestock and poultry producers are opposed to such restrictions because of concerns about animal welfare and food safety, as well as concerns about possible increases in production costs, among other reasons. Presently, it is not possible to precisely predict or to provide a quantitative assessment of the potential trade implications of future restrictions on antimicrobial use in food animal production. Given the number of market variables that would need to be evaluated, along with other trade issues facing U.S. meat exporters in global markets, it is difficult to precisely predict trade implications of possible future restrictions on antimicrobials in animal feed in selected countries. However, it is possible to examine the range of possible outcomes from two scenarios involving potential trade implications for U.S. livestock and poultry exports from tightened restrictions or prohibitions on the use of antimicrobial drugs in animal feed for growth promotion: Scenario 1: Tightened restrictions or prohibitions in key U.S. export markets, without corresponding changes in the United States on the use of antimicrobials in animal feed for growth promotion. Scenario 2: Tightened restrictions or prohibitions in key U.S. export markets, with corresponding prohibitions in the United States on the use of antimicrobials in animal feed for growth promotion. This report discusses the possible outcomes under these scenarios in terms of changes in U.S. livestock and poultry exports and changes in U.S. market share in global meat markets."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Renée
2010-12-08
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Whole-Farm Crop Disaster Program: Supplemental Revenue Assistance Payments (SURE) [December 3, 2010]
"In an effort to end the ad-hoc nature of emergency crop disaster assistance to farmers, Congress authorized a new Supplemental Revenue Assistance Payments Program (SURE) in the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008. The program provides payments to producers for crop revenue losses due to natural disaster or adverse weather incurred on or before September 30, 2011. It essentially compensates eligible producers for a portion of losses that are not eligible for an indemnity payment under a crop insurance policy. The program departs from both traditional disaster assistance and crop yield insurance by calculating and reimbursing losses using total crop revenue for the entire farm (i.e., summing revenue from all crops for an individual farmer). Under SURE, a farmer's revenue from all crops in all counties is compared with a guaranteed level that is computed mostly from expected or average yields and prices. As a result, the program considers the disaster's impact on a farmer's entire enterprise and not on just the crop(s) that were adversely affected. If the actual farm revenue (including farm program payments and insurance indemnities) is less than the farm's guaranteed level, the producer receives a payment, calculated as 60% of the difference between the two amounts. In contrast, if actual whole farm revenue does not fall below the guarantee, whereby losses for one crop are offset by revenue gains for another, no disaster payment is made. Payments are limited so that the guaranteed level cannot exceed 90% of expected farm income in the absence of a natural disaster. In 2010, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) issued more than $2.0 billion for 2008 crop losses under the SURE program, with the level of payments by state generally proportional to indemnities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shields, Dennis A.
2010-12-03
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FCC's Authority to Regulate Net Neutrality After Comcast v. FCC [December 2, 2010]
"In 2007, through various experiments by the media, most notably the Associated Press, it became clear that Comcast was intermittently blocking the use of an application called BitTorrent™ and, possibly, other peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing programs on its network. Comcast eventually admitted to the practice and agreed to cease blocking the use of the P2P applications on its network. However, Comcast maintains that its actions were reasonable network management and not in violation of the Federal Communications Commission's ('FCC' or 'Commission') policy. In response to a petition from Free Press for a declaratory ruling that Comcast's blocking of P2P applications was not 'reasonable network management,' the FCC conducted an investigation into Comcast's network management practices. The FCC determined that Comcast had violated the agency's Internet Policy Statement when it blocked certain applications on its network and that the practice at issue in this case was not 'reasonable network management.' The FCC declined to fine Comcast because its Internet Policy Statement had never previously been the basis for enforcement forfeitures. Comcast appealed this decision to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, as did other public interest groups."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ruane, Kathleen Ann
2010-12-02
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Cybercrime: An Overview of the Federal Computer Fraud and Abuse Statute and Related Federal Criminal Laws [December 27, 2010]
From the Summary: "The federal computer fraud and abuse statute, 18 U.S.C. 1030, outlaws conduct that victimizes computer systems. It is a cyber security law. It protects federal computers, bank computers, and computers connected to the Internet. It shields them from trespassing, threats, damage, espionage, and from being corruptly used as instruments of fraud. It is not a comprehensive provision, but instead it fills cracks and gaps in the protection afforded by other federal criminal laws. This is a brief sketch of Section 1030 and some of its federal statutory companions, including the amendments found in the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act, P.L. 110-326, 122 Stat. 3560 (2008) (H.R. 5938 (110th Cong.))."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2010-12-27
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Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Fate of the Oil [December 16, 2010]
"The April 20, 2010, explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig led to the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. Federal government officials estimated that the deepwater well ultimately released (over 84 days) over 200 million gallons (or 4.9 million barrels) of crude oil. Although decreasing amounts of oil were observed on the ocean surface following the well's containment on July 15, 2010, oil spill response officials and researchers have found oil in other places. A pressing question that has been raised by many stakeholders is where did the oil go? [...] Direct observation and measurement of the fate of the vast majority of the estimated 200 million gallons of oil presents a considerable challenge. In some cases, the estimates used to calculate these percentages contain considerable uncertainty. Even assuming that approximately half of the oil has been removed from the Gulf ecosystem through direct recovery, burning, skimming, or evaporation, the fate of the remaining ('other') oil is unknown. A complete and definitive answer to the question of the remaining oil is unknown at this juncture. It is debatable whether the fate of the remaining oil will ever be established conclusively, because multiple challenges hinder this objective: the complexity of the Gulf system; resources required to collect data; and varied interpretations over the results and observations. Moreover, as time progresses, determining the fate of the oil will likely become more difficult. Regardless, the question of oil fate will likely be answered through an incremental process. [...] If policymakers have the perception that the oil has degraded with minimal impacts to the environment, attention to the oil spill's consequences and associated impacts may wane. On the other hand, a perception that a substantial volume of oil remains and poses a threat to the environment could result in continuing pressure on Gulf industries and livelihoods."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2010-12-16
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Securing America's Borders: The Role of the Intelligence Community [December 7, 2010]
"Maintaining the security of U.S. borders is a fundamental responsibility of the federal government. Various border security missions are assigned to the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Defense, and other federal agencies that work in cooperation with state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies. The success of their efforts depends on the availability of reliable information on the nature of potential threats to border security. Given the extent of the land borders and the long coastlines of the United States and the number of individuals and vehicles crossing borders legitimately, the task of identifying law breakers within the overall threat environment is a major challenge. Law enforcement agencies obtain information from their usual sources--reports of crimes committed, tip-offs from informers, technical monitoring devices that now include unmanned aerial vehicles, and other sophisticated devices. In recent decades, and especially after 9/11, the potential for terrorists coming across the border as well as extensive narcotics trafficking have led policymakers to reach beyond law enforcement agencies to seek out information acquired by intelligence sources, including signals intelligence, imagery intelligence, and human agents."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2010-12-07
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U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [December 3, 2010]
"Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations, and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. The 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) directs increases in SOF force structure, particularly in terms of increasing enabling units and rotary and fixed-wing SOF aviation assets and units. The U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) Commander, Admiral Eric T. Olson, in commenting on the current state of the forces under his command, noted that SOF forces are deployed to more than 75 countries and 86% of these forces are in the U.S. Central Command area of responsibility. Admiral Olson also noted ongoing growth in SOF units and aviation assets and the effectiveness of Section 1208 authority, which provides funds for SOF to train and equip regular and irregular indigenous forces to conduct counterterrorism operations. USSOCOM's FY2011 budget request for $9.8 billion has been recommended by the House and Senate Armed Services Committees for full funding, and both committees have recommended additional funding for unfunded requirements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Livingston, Thomas K.; Feickert, Andrew
2010-12-03
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Bush Tax Cuts and the Economy [December 8, 2010]
"A series of tax cuts were enacted early in the George W. Bush Administration by the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA; P.L. 107-16) and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 (JGTRRA; P.L. 108-27). These tax cuts, which are collectively known as the Bush tax cuts, are scheduled to expire at the end of 2010. Beginning in 2011, many of the individual income tax parameters (such as tax rates) will revert back to 2000 levels. The major tax provisions in EGTRRA and JGTRRA that are part of the current debate over the Bush tax cuts are the reduced tax rates, the reduction of the marriage penalty (and increase in the marriage bonus), the repeal of the personal exemption phaseout and the limitation on itemized deductions, the reduced tax rates on long-term capital gains and qualified dividends, and expanded tax credits. This report examines the Bush tax cuts within the context of the current and long-term economic environment. The U.S. economy entered into a recession in December 2007. Between the fourth quarter of 2007 and the second quarter of 2009, the economy shrank with real gross domestic product (GDP) falling by 4.1%. The unemployment rate increased from 4.9% in December 2007 to 10.1% by October 2009, and is currently still over 9%. As a result of reduced economic activity and government efforts to stimulate the economy, the federal budget deficit increased from 1.2% of GDP in FY2007 to 9.9% of GDP in FY2009. Most economic forecasts suggest the economic outlook over the next few months is not bright and will likely be characterized by high unemployment and sluggish economic growth. The long-term fiscal situation is unsustainable."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hungerford, Thomas L.
2010-12-08
