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U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global Competition, Federal Support [May 30, 2012]

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"Every President since Richard Nixon has sought to increase U.S. energy supply diversity. In recent years, job creation and the development of a domestic renewable energy manufacturing base have joined national security and environmental concerns as rationales for promoting the manufacturing of solar power equipment in the United States. The federal government maintains a variety of tax credits, loan guarantees, and targeted research and development programs to encourage the solar manufacturing sector, and state-level mandates that utilities obtain specified percentages of their electricity from renewable sources have bolstered demand for large solar projects. The most widely used solar technology involves photovoltaic (PV) solar modules, which draw on semiconducting materials to convert sunlight into electricity. By year-end 2011, the total number of grid-connected PV systems nationwide reached almost 215,000. Domestic demand is met both by imports and by about 100 U.S. manufacturing facilities employing an estimated 25,000 U.S. workers in 2011. Production is clustered in a few states, including California, Oregon, Texas, and Ohio. [...] The competitiveness of solar PV as a source of electric generation in the United States will likely be adversely affected both by the expiration of these tax provisions and by the rapid development of shale gas, which has the potential to lower the cost of gas-fired power generation and reduce the cost-competitiveness of solar power, particularly as an energy source for utilities. In light of these developments, the ability to build a significant U.S. production base for PV equipment is in question."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Platzer, Michaela D.

2012-05-30
U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [May 18, 2012]

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"The 112th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. [...] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--the end result of the President's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the present EAA or writing new legislation. In doing so, Congress may debate the record of the present dual-use system maintained by emergency authority, the aims and effectiveness of the present non-proliferation control regimes, the maintenance of the defense industrial base, and the delicate balance between the maintenance of economic competitiveness and the preservation of national security."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.; Fergusson, Ian F.

2012-05-18
Vietnam-U.S. Normalization Process [December 27, 2005]

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"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship in many ways has been virtually normalized. Congress has played a significant role in this process. Each step in improving bilateral ties has brought controversy, albeit at diminishing levels. U.S. opponents in Congress and elsewhere have argued that Vietnam maintains a poor record on human and religious rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Opposition has also come from groups arguing that Vietnam has not done enough to account for U.S. Prisoners of War/Missing in Action (POW/MIAs) from the Vietnam War, though this argument has diminished markedly in recent years. Forces favoring normalization have included those reflecting a strong U.S. business interest in Vietnam's reforming economy and American strategic interests in integrating Vietnam more fully into East Asia and in expanding cooperation with a country that has an ambivalent relationship with China. […] Vietnam is one of the largest recipients of U.S. assistance in East Asia; U.S. aid in FY2005 surpassed $50 million. By far the largest component of the U.S. bilateral aid program is health-related assistance, particularly spending on HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention. The United States also has budgeted over $7 million to help Vietnam battle outbreaks of the H5N1 avian influenza virus, which is believed to be responsible for over 40 human deaths in Vietnam."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.

2005-12-27
U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel [January 5, 2006]

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"This report provides an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to Israel. It includes a review of past aid programs, data on annual assistance figures, and an analysis of current issues. The report will be updated annually to reflect developments over the previous year. For the most recent action on aid to Israel, see CRS Issue Brief IB82008, Israel: Background and Relations with the United States, by Carol Migdalovitz. For information on overall U.S. assistance to the Middle East, see CRS Report RL32260, 'U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2006 Request', by Jeremy M. Sharp. […] Following Israel's 2005 withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, Israeli officials reportedly have sought additional aid from the Bush Administration. Additional U.S. assistance could be used to fund development projects in the Negev desert and Galilee region. Israel reportedly suspended its initial aid request in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina. Although the Administration has not submitted a formal request for these new projects to Congress, there is some speculation that the proposed assistance package could range anywhere from $800 million to $1.5 billion."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

2006-01-05
U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements with and Deliveries to Major Clients, 1997-2004 [December 29, 2005]

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"This report provides background data on United States arms sales agreements with and deliveries to its major purchasers during 'calendar years' 1997-2004. In a series of data tables, it lists the total dollar values of U.S. arms sales 'agreements' with its top five purchasers in five specific regions of the world for three specific periods: 1997-2000, 2001-2004, and 2004 alone, and the total dollar values of U.S. arms 'deliveries' to its top five purchasers in those same regions for the periods 1997-2000, 2001-2004, and for 2004 alone. In addition, the report provides data tables listing the total dollar values of U.S. arms 'agreements' with and 'deliveries' to its top 10 purchasers 'worldwide' for the periods 1997-2000, 2001-2004, and for 2004 alone. This report is prepared in conjunction with the annual CRS report for Congress entitled: 'Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1997-2004' (CRS Report RL33051). That report details both U.S. and foreign arms transfer activities globally, and provides analysis of arms trade trends. The intent here is to complement that elaborate 'worldwide' treatment of the international arms trade by providing only the dollar values of United States arms sales agreements with and delivery values to its leading customers, by geographic region, for the calendar years 1997-2000, 2001- 2004, and 2004. Unlike CRS Report RL33051, this report focuses exclusively on U.S. arms sales, provides the specific names of the major U.S. arms customers, by region, together with the total dollar values of their arms purchases or deliveries. This report will not be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Grimmett, Richard F.

2005-12-29
Water Infrastructure Financing: History of EPA Appropriations [April 5, 2012]

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"The principal federal program to aid municipal wastewater treatment plant construction is authorized in the Clean Water Act (CWA). Established as a grant program in 1972, it now capitalizes state loan programs. Authorizations since 1972 have totaled $65 billion, while appropriations have totaled more than $85 billion. It has represented 25-30% of total funds appropriated to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in recent years. In appropriations legislation, funding for EPA wastewater assistance is contained in the measure providing funds for the Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies, which includes EPA. Within the portion of that bill which funds EPA, wastewater treatment assistance is specified in an account now called State and Tribal Assistance Grants (STAG). Three trends in the funding of this account are most prominent: inclusion of non-infrastructure environmental grants to states, beginning in FY1993; increasing number and amount of special purpose grants since FY1989; and the addition of grant assistance for drinking water treatment projects in FY1997. This report summarizes, in chronological order, congressional activity to fund items in this account since 1987."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Copeland, Claudia

2012-04-05
U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [November 28, 2006]

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"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship in many ways has been virtually normalized. Congress has played a significant role in this process. Each step in improving bilateral ties has brought controversy, albeit at diminishing levels. Some argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Hanoi improving its record on human and religious rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Opposition to the pace and scope of normalization also has come from groups arguing that Vietnam has not done enough to account for U.S. Prisoners of War/Missing in Action from the Vietnam War, though this argument has diminished markedly in recent years. Interests favoring normalization have included those reflecting a strong U.S. business interest in Vietnam's reforming economy and American strategic interests in integrating Vietnam more fully into East Asia and in expanding cooperation with a country that has an ambivalent relationship with China. […] In recent years, clashes over Vietnam's human rights record and trade issues have arisen. Simultaneously, however, the two countries have expanded political and security ties in the past three years, symbolized by the Vietnamese Prime Minister's visit to the United States in June 2005, the first such trip by a Vietnamese head of state. President Bush spoke of his desire to move bilateral relations to 'a higher plane,' backed Vietnam's bid to enter the WTO [World Trade Organization], and the two countries signed an international military education training (IMET) agreement. The two countries share a strategic interest in offsetting China's increased influence in Southeast Asia, though many argue there is little evidence that Hanoi seeks to balance Beijing's rising power. Vietnam is one of the largest recipients of U.S. assistance in East Asia; U.S. aid in FY2005 surpassed $50 million. This report will be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.

2006-11-28
United Nations System Funding: Congressional Issues [March 30, 2006]

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"Congressional debate over U.N. [United Nations] funding focuses on the following questions: (1) What is the appropriate level of U.S. funding for U.N. system operations and programs? (2) What U.S. funding actions are most likely to produce a positive continuation of U.N. system reform efforts? The U.N. system includes the parent U.N. organization, a number of affiliated agencies, voluntary funds and programs, and peacekeeping operations. Participating states finance the system with voluntary and assessed contributions. For nearly 60 years, the United States has been the single largest financial contributor to the U.N. system. […] The Administration also requested $780 million in supplemental FY2005 funding for peacekeeping contributions; $680 million was appropriated in FY2005 supplemental funding for U.N. peacekeeping in P.L. 109-13. The $281.9 million request for U.S. voluntary contributions in the international organizations and programs account had included $114 million for UNICEF [United Nations Children Fund] and $95 million for UNDP [United Nations Development Program]. FY2005. P.L. 108-447, the Consolidated Appropriations Act for FY2005, included $1.18 billion for U.S. assessed contributions for international organizations (CIO); $490 million for assessed contributions for U.N. peacekeeping activities (CIPA); and $319,494,000 for voluntary contributions for the international organizations and programs (IO&P) account. In addition, $53 million was included for voluntary contributions to IAEA [International Atomic Energy Agency] in another account."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Browne, Marjorie Ann; Bite, Vita

2006-03-30
Unmanned Vehicles for U.S. Naval Forces: Background and Issues for Congress [October 25, 2006]

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"Unmanned vehicles (UVs) are viewed as a key element of the effort to transform U.S. military forces. The Department of the Navy may eventually acquire every major kind of UV. Navy and Marine Corps UV programs raise several potential issues for Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald

2006-10-25
U.S. Embassy in Iraq [April 11, 2005]

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"The Bush Administration is in the process of establishing new embassy facilities in Baghdad and regional offices throughout Iraq. The President has requested more than $1.3 billion in the FY2005 supplemental request for the logistical, security and construction costs associated with the embassy. On March 16, 2005, the House passed an emergency supplemental appropriation (H.R. 1268) which includes $592 million for Embassy Security, Construction, and Maintenance 'only' if deemed an emergency, and reporting requirements of the Secretary of State on project-by-project uses of the funds in the bill. In 2005, even before it is built and fully staffed, this embassy is among the largest of State Department's overseas missions. As of June 28, 2004, sovereignty officially was transferred to the Iraqi interim government. At the same time, the lines of U.S. government authority in Iraq were transferred from the Department of Defense (DOD), the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), and Ambassador Bremer to the Department of State (DOS), the American Embassy in Baghdad, and newly confirmed Ambassador Negroponte. This report discusses reestablishing normal diplomatic ties with Iraq and setting up the new embassy facilities and regional teams. It will be updated as changes occur."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Epstein, Susan B.

2005-04-11
U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [May 7, 2012]

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"India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all of its nuclear material, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. However, President Bush announced July 18, 2005, he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader partnership with India. [...] The Obama Administration has continued with the Bush Administration's policy regarding civil nuclear cooperation with India. According to a November 8, 2010, White House fact sheet, the United States 'intends to support India's full membership' in the NSG, as well as other multilateral export control regimes."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.

2012-05-07
U.S. Trade Remedy Laws and Nonmarket Economies: A Legal Overview [March 14, 2012]

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"Two major U.S. trade remedies, each set out in Title VII of the Tariff Act of 1930, are antidumping (AD) law, which combats the sale of imported goods at less than their fair market value, and countervailing duty (CVD) law, which is aimed at offsetting foreign government subsidization of imported items. If dumped or subsidized imports are found to cause material injury, or threat, to a domestic industry, and the dumping margin or the net subsidy is not 'de minimis,' antidumping or countervailing duties will be imposed. Both remedies are available when goods are imported from competitor countries that have free market policies. Since 1984, however, only AD law had been applied to goods from nonmarket or other 'transitional' economies. With the continued economic growth of some of these economies, such as China and Vietnam, pressure has increased on the U.S. government to utilize both domestic trade remedies more aggressively against unfair imports from these countries. This report discusses the application of antidumping and countervailing duty law to the goods of nonmarket economy (NME) countries[.]"

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Grimmett, Jeanne J.

2012-03-14
U.S.-Panama Free Trade Agreement [April 26, 2012]

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"On June 28, 2007, the United States and Panama signed a reciprocal free trade agreement (FTA) after two and a half years and 10 rounds of negotiations. Negotiations formally concluded on December 16, 2006, with an understanding that changes to labor, environment, and intellectual property rights chapters would be made pursuant to future congressional input. These changes were agreed to and the FTA was signed in time to be considered under Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) legislation, which expired on July 1, 2007. TPA allows Congress to consider certain trade implementing bills under expedited procedures. Panama's legislature ratified the FTA 58 to 4 on July 11, 2007 (see Appendix A for Chronology of U.S.-Panama FTA Milestones). Neither the 110th nor the 111th Congress took up the agreement. The U.S. Congress did not consider implementing legislation for over four years after the FTA was signed, an unprecedented delay reflecting multiple concerns of Congress (see below). Eventually, the 112th Congress took up the free trade agreement when congressional leaders and the Obama Administration came to an understanding on how to proceed. On July 7, 2011, the House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committees both held simultaneous 'mock markups,' where they informally approved draft implementing bills. On October 3, 2011, the Obama Administration transmitted to both houses of Congress final implementing legislation and supporting documents, as required under TPA. Following committee action, on October 12, 2011, the House agreed to the implementing bill (H.R. 3079) 300-129, followed by the Senate 77- 22. President Obama signed the bill into law on October 21, 2011 (P.L. 112-43, 125 Stat. 427). The FTA enters into force by presidential proclamation when Panama completes all legal and regulatory changes required to meet the obligations of the agreement."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)

2012-04-26
U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement: Background and Issues [April 27, 2012]

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"The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement, or U.S. Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement, as it is officially called, is a comprehensive free trade agreement (FTA) between the United States and Colombia, which will eventually eliminate tariffs and other barriers in bilateral trade in goods and services. On April 15, 2012, at the Summit of the Americas in Cartagena Colombia, President Barack Obama announced that the agreement would enter into force on May 15, 2012, sooner than many observers expected. The announcement came after completion of several months of work by both governments to review each other's laws and regulations related to the implementation of the FTA, as well as to Colombia's efforts to fulfill its set of commitments under the Action Plan Related to Labor Rights. […] The CFTA negotiations grew out of a regional effort in 2004 to produce a U.S.-Andean free trade agreement between the United States and the Andean countries of Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador. After numerous rounds of talks, however, negotiators failed to reach an agreement, and Colombia continued negotiations with the United States for a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA). On February 27, 2006, the United States and Colombia concluded the U.S.-Colombia FTA, and finalized the text of the agreement on July 8, 2006. On August 24, 2006, President Bush notified Congress of his intention to sign the U.S.-Colombia FTA. The two countries signed the agreement on November 22, 2006. The Colombian Congress approved the agreement in June 2007 and again in October 2007, after the agreement was modified to include new labor and environmental provisions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Villarreal, M. Angeles

2012-04-27
U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global Competition, Federal Support [April 27, 2012]

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"Every president since Richard Nixon has sought to increase U.S. energy supply diversity. In recent years, job creation and the development of a domestic renewable energy manufacturing base have joined national security and environmental concerns as rationales for promoting the manufacturing of solar power equipment in the United States. The federal government maintains a variety of tax credits, loan guarantees, and targeted research and development programs to encourage the solar manufacturing sector, and state-level mandates that utilities obtain specified percentages of their electricity from renewable sources have bolstered demand for large solar projects. The most widely used solar technology involves photovoltaic (PV) solar modules, which draw on semiconducting materials to convert sunlight into electricity. By year-end 2011, the total number of grid-connected PV systems nationwide reached almost 215,000. Domestic demand is met both by imports and by about 100 U.S. manufacturing facilities employing an estimated 25,000 U.S. workers in 2011. Production is clustered in a few states, including California, Oregon, Texas, and Ohio. […] The competitiveness of solar PV as a source of electric generation in the United States will likely be adversely affected both by the expiration of these tax provisions and by the rapid development of shale gas, which has the potential to lower the cost of gas-fired power generation and reduce the cost-competitiveness of solar power, particularly as an energy source for utilities. In light of these developments, the ability to build a significant U.S. production base for PV equipment is in question."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Platzer, Michaela D.

2012-04-27
Ukraine: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [May 10, 2012]

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"On February 7, 2010, Viktor Yanukovych defeated Prime Minister Yuliya Tymoshenko to win Ukraine's presidency. International monitors praised the conduct of the election, although Tymoshenko charged that the election had been fraudulent. Yanukovych was able to quickly to form a new parliamentary majority in the current parliament by inducing scores of supporters of the previous government to change sides. Government opponents charged that bribery and threats to the business interests of members were used to effect the change. The global economic crisis hit Ukraine hard. Ukraine's real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15% in 2009. The economy began to recover in 2010, and GDP increased by 4.7% in 2011, due in part to a surge in demand for Ukrainian steel exports. However, living standards for many Ukrainians remain low, leading to a rapid drop in Yanukovych's popularity when compared to the period soon after his inauguration. Expected slow growth in western Europe will likely result in slower growth in 2012 for Ukraine as well. President Yanukovych has pursued closer ties with Russia, especially in the economic sphere. A major focus of his policy has been to seek reduced prices for natural gas supplies from Moscow. In April 2010, he agreed to extend the lease of the Russian Black Sea Fleet in Ukraine for 25 years in exchange for a reduction in gas prices. However, the impact of the deal on gas prices has been less than anticipated, as oil prices (on which Ukraine's gas price is calculated) have soared due to unrest in the Middle East. As a result, Ukraine has sought additional gas price cuts from Moscow, so far without success."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Woehrel, Steven J.

2012-05-10
U.S. National Science Foundation: An Overview [January 6, 2012]

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"The National Science Foundation (NSF) was created by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950, as amended (P.L.81-507). The NSF has the broad mission of supporting science and engineering in general and funding basic research across many disciplines. The agency provides support for investigator-initiated, merit-reviewed, competitively selected awards, state-of-the-art tools, and instrumentation and facilities. The majority of the research supported by the NSF is conducted at U.S. colleges and universities. Approximately 82.3% ($3,900.6 million) of NSF's estimated FY2009 [Fiscal Year] $4,742.0 million research and development (R&D) budget was awarded to U.S. colleges and universities. On November 18, 2011, President Barack Obama signed into law the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Appropriations Act, FY2012, P.L. 112-55. The law provides, among other things, funding for the NSF. The law provides a total of $7,033.1 million for the NSF in FY2012, $733.9 million below the Administration's request, and $173.2 million above the FY2011 enacted level. The Research and Related Activities (R&RA) account is funded at $5,719.0 million in FY2012, $534.5 million below the requested level and $155.1 million above the FY2011 enacted level. R&RA funds research projects, research facilities, and education and training activities. R&RA is also a source of funding for the acquisition and development of research instrumentation at U.S. colleges and universities, disaster research teams, Partnerships for Innovation, and the Science and Technology Policy Institute. In addition, the law provides $829.0 million for the Education and Human Resources (EHR) directorate and $167.1 million for the Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction (MREFC) in FY2012."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Matthews, Christine M.

2012-01-06
U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [June 15, 2012]

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"U.S. aid to the Palestinians is intended to promote at least three major U.S. policy priorities of interest to Congress: 1) Combating, neutralizing, and preventing terrorism against Israel from the Islamist group Hamas and other militant organizations. 2) Creating a virtuous cycle of stability and prosperity in the West Bank that inclines Palestinians-including those in the Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip- toward peaceful coexistence with Israel and prepares them for self-governance. 3) Meeting humanitarian needs and preventing further destabilization, particularly in the Gaza Strip."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Zanotti, Jim

2012-06-15
U.S. Armed Forces Abroad: Selected Congressional Votes Since 1982 [April 28, 2006]

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"This report summarizes selected congressional votes related to instances in which U.S. Armed Forces have been sent abroad in potentially hostile situations. These votes reflect the type of congressional actions that observers maintain bear directly on issues affecting policy and the funding of troops abroad, often in the context of the War Powers Resolution, continued presence or withdrawal of troops, and the 'use of force.' The cases of Lebanon (1982-1983), Grenada (1983), Panama (1989), the Persian Gulf War (1990-1991), Somalia (1992-1995), Haiti (1993-1996), Bosnia (1992-1998), Kosovo (1999), the terrorist attack against America (2001) (including the use of U.S. Armed Forces in Afghanistan), and the use of U.S. Armed Forces against Iraq (2002-present) are examined. The roll call votes that are available online (since 1990 in the House and 1989 in the Senate) are linked. This report will be updated as events or legislation warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mages, Lisa

2006-04-28
U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Changing Oil Prices [June 18, 2012]

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"Petroleum prices rose sharply between January 2012 and April 2012, at times reaching more than $109 per barrel of crude oil. Although this is still below the $140 per barrel price reached in 2008, the rising cost of energy was one factor that helped to dampen the rate of growth in the economy during the second half of 2011 and the first half of 2012. While the price of oil was rising, the volume of oil imports, or the amount of oil imported, decreased slightly from the comparable period in the previous year. In general, market demand for oil remains highly resistant to changes in oil prices and reflects the unique nature of the demand for oil. In addition, sustained demand for oil in the face of higher prices reflected an increase in economic activity that occurred following the worst part of the economic recession in 2009. Turmoil in the Middle East was an important factor causing petroleum prices to rise sharply in early 2011 and in 2012. Although prices for imported oil fluctuated somewhat throughout 2011, they averaged 30% higher than in 2010 and added about $100 billion to the total U.S. trade deficit in 2011. Oil futures markets in June indicated that oil prices were expected to fluctuate around the $83 per barrel recorded in June 2012, in part because oil producers agreed in mid-June to maintain the then-current production levels to stabilize market prices. The increase in energy import prices in 2011 pushed up the price of energy to consumers. In such cases, some elements of the public tend to pressure Congress to provide relief to households that are struggling to meet their current expenses. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the changing oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2012-06-18
U.S. Direct Investment Abroad: Trends and Current Issues [April 26, 2006]

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"The United States is the largest investor abroad and the largest recipient of direct investment in the world. For some Americans, the national gains attributed to investing overseas are offset by such perceived losses as displaced U.S. workers and lower wages. Some observers believe U.S. firms invest abroad to avoid U.S. labor unions or high U.S. wages, however, 70% of U.S. foreign direct investment is concentrated in high income developed countries. Even more striking is the fact that the share of investment going to developing countries has fallen in recent years. Most economists conclude that direct investment abroad overall does not lead to fewer jobs or lower incomes overall for Americans and that the majority of jobs lost among U.S. manufacturing firms over the past decade reflect a broad restructuring of U.S. manufacturing industries. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2006-04-26
U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [December 15, 2011]

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"India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all of its nuclear material, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. However, President Bush announced July 18, 2005, he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader partnership with India."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.

2011-12-15
U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [August 11, 2011]

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"India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all of its nuclear material, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. However, President Bush announced July 18, 2005, he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader partnership with India."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.

2011-08-11
U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [July 21, 2011]

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"India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all of its nuclear material, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. However, President Bush announced July 18, 2005, he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader partnership with India. […] However, U.S. companies have not yet started nuclear trade with India and may be reluctant to do so if New Delhi does not resolve concerns regarding its policies on liability for nuclear reactor operators and suppliers. Taking a step to resolve such concerns, India signed the Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage, which has not yet entered into force, October 27, 2010. However, many observers have argued that Indian nuclear liability legislation adopted in August 2010 is inconsistent with the Convention. The Obama Administration has continued with the Bush Administration's policy regarding civil nuclear cooperation with India. According to a November 8, 2010, White House fact sheet, the United States 'intends to support India's full membership' in the NSG, as well as other multilateral export control regimes."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kerr, Paul K.

2011-07-21
U.S.-South Korea Relations [November 28, 2011]

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"Of all the issues on the bilateral agenda, Congress has had the most direct role to play in the Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA), the United States' second-largest FTA after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). [...] The day after Congress passed the KORUS FTA, South Korean President Lee Myung-bak addressed a joint session of Congress. Lee was in Washington for a State Visit to the White House, the fifth since Barack Obama's inauguration. [...] The Obama and Lee Administrations have adopted a medium-to-longer-term policy of 'strategic patience' that involves four main elements: refusing to return to the Six-Party Talks without an assurance from North Korea that it would take 'irreversible steps' to denuclearize; gradually attempting to alter China's strategic assessment of North Korea; using Pyongyang's provocations as opportunities to tighten sanctions against North Korean entities; and insisting that significant multilateral and U.S. talks with North Korea must be preceded by improvements in North-South Korean relations. Lee, in turn, has linked progress in many areas of North-South relations to progress in denuclearizing North Korea. The United States maintains about 28,500 troops in the ROK [Republic of Korea]. Since 2009, the two sides have accelerated steps to transform the U.S.-ROK alliance's primary purpose from one of defending against a North Korean attack to a regional and even global partnership. Washington and Seoul have announced a 'Strategic Alliance 2015' plan to relocate U.S. troops on the Peninsula and boost ROK defense capabilities. Some Members of Congress have criticized the relocation plans. Much of the current closeness between Seoul and Washington is due to President Lee. It is unclear how sustainable many of his policies will be, particularly into 2012, when South Koreans will elect a new president and a new legislature. Bilateral coordination will be particularly tested if South Korea's left-of-center groups, which gained significant momentum in 2011 and which bitterly oppose much of Lee's agenda, retake the presidency and/or the National Assembly."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.; Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2011-11-28
Visa Waiver Program [December 2, 2011]

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"The visa waiver program (VWP) allows nationals from certain countries to enter the United States as temporary visitors (nonimmigrants) for business or pleasure without first obtaining a visa from a U.S. consulate abroad. Temporary visitors for business or pleasure from non-VWP countries must obtain a visa from Department of State (DOS) officers at a consular post abroad before coming to the United States. Concerns have been raised about the ability of terrorists to enter the United States under the VWP, because the VWP bypasses the first step by which foreign visitors are screened for admissibility to enter the United States. Nonetheless, the current economic recession has heightened interest in the VWP as a mechanism to promote tourism and commerce. In addition to increasing tourism, the inclusion of countries in the VWP may help foster positive relations between the United States and those countries, facilitate information sharing, and ease consular office workloads abroad. As of January 2011, 36 countries participate in the VWP."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Siskin, Alison

2011-12-02
Unrest in Syria and U.S. Sanctions Against the Asad Regime [November 9, 2011]

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"This report analyzes the current unrest in Syria and the U.S. response to the Syrian government's crackdown against demonstrators. It also provides background information on U.S. sanctions against the Asad regime and its supporters. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct foreign assistance funding to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations, largely because of the U.S. State Department's designation of Syria as a sponsor of international terrorism. On December 12, 2003, President George W. Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, P.L. 108-175, which imposed additional economic sanctions against Syria. Syrian individuals and government officials are subject to targeted financial sanctions pursuant to executive orders relating to terrorism, proliferation, and regional security. Successive administrations have designated several Syrian entities as weapons proliferators and sanctioned several Russian companies for alleged weapons of mass destruction or advanced weapons sales to Syria."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Blanchard, Christopher M.

2011-11-09
U.S. National Science Foundation: An Overview [December 20, 2011]

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"The National Science Foundation (NSF) was created by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950, as amended (P.L.81-507). The NSF has the broad mission of supporting science and engineering in general and funding basic research across many disciplines. [...] On November 18, 2011, President Barack Obama signed into law the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Appropriations Act, FY2012, P.L. 112-55. The law provides, among other things, funding for the NSF. The law provides a total of $7,033.1 million for the NSF in FY2012, $733.9 million below the Administration's request, and $173.2 million above the FY2011 enacted level. The Research and Related Activities (R&RA) account is funded at $5,719.0 million in FY2012, $534.5 million below the requested level and $155.1 million above the FY2011 enacted level. R&RA funds research projects, research facilities, and education and training activities. R&RA is also a source of funding for the acquisition and development of research instrumentation at U.S. colleges and universities, disaster research teams, Partnerships for Innovation, and the Science and Technology Policy Institute."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Matthews, Christine M.

2011-12-20
U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Current Conflicts [December 29, 2011]

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"Many wars or conflicts in U.S. history have federally designated 'periods of war,' dates marking their beginning and ending. These dates are important for qualification for certain veterans' pension or disability benefits. Confusion can occur because beginning and ending dates for 'periods of war' in many nonofficial sources are often different from those given in treaties and other official sources of information, and armistice dates can be confused with termination dates. This report lists the beginning and ending dates for 'periods of war' found in Title 38 of the Code of Federal Regulations, dealing with the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). It also lists and differentiates other beginning dates given in declarations of war, as well as termination of hostilities dates and armistice and ending dates given in proclamations, laws, or treaties. The dates for the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan are included along with the official end date for Operation New Dawn on December 15, 2011. This report will be updated when events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Torreon, Barbara Salazar

2011-12-29
U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global Competition, Federal Support [June 13, 2012]

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"Every President since Richard Nixon has sought to increase U.S. energy supply diversity. In recent years, job creation and the development of a domestic renewable energy manufacturing base have joined national security and environmental concerns as rationales for promoting the manufacturing of solar power equipment in the United States. The federal government maintains a variety of tax credits, loan guarantees, and targeted research and development programs to encourage the solar manufacturing sector, and state-level mandates that utilities obtain specified percentages of their electricity from renewable sources have bolstered demand for large solar projects. […] The competitiveness of solar PV [photovoltaic] as a source of electric generation in the United States will likely be adversely affected both by the expiration of these tax provisions and by the rapid development of shale gas, which has the potential to lower the cost of gas-fired power generation and reduce the cost-competitiveness of solar power, particularly as an energy source for utilities. In light of these developments, the ability to build a significant U.S. production base for PV equipment is in question."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Platzer, Michaela D.

2012-06-13

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