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• U.S.-Latin American Trade: Recent Trends [Updated January 2, 2008]

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  "Since Congress passed Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) legislation in August 2002 (P.L. 107-210), the United States has entered into free trade agreements (FTAs) with Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Central American countries, and Peru. The United States has also concluded FTAs with Colombia and Panama, which await congressional action. Talks on the region-wide Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), by contrast, have stalled. The 110th Congress may consider implementing legislation for one or both of the pending bilateral agreements. This report provides an analytical overview of U.S.-Latin American trade data and trends in support of congressional interest in U.S.-Latin American trade relations. It will be updated. Trade is one of the driving issues in contemporary U.S.-Latin America relations. Although not the largest, Latin America is the fastest growing U.S. regional trade partner, with the exception of Africa, which has had strong export growth based largely on the recent rise of petroleum prices. Between 1996 and 2006, total U.S. merchandise trade (exports plus imports) with Latin America grew by 118% compared to 96% for Asia (driven largely by China), 95% for the European Union, 239% for Africa, and 104% for the world. There are two import caveats. First, most of the growth in Latin American trade was due to Mexico, the largest U.S. regional trade partner in dollar terms. Second, U.S. imports grew more than twice as fast as exports."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)

  2008-01-02
• Venezuela: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy [Updated April 15, 2008]

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  "The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been friction with the Chávez government. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about human rights, Venezuela's military arms purchases, its relations with Cuba and Iran, and its efforts to export its brand of populism to other Latin American countries. Declining cooperation on anti-drug and anti-terrorism efforts has also been a U.S. concern. Since 2005, President Bush has annually designated Venezuela as a country that has failed demonstrably to adhere to its obligations under international narcotics agreements, and since 2006, the Department of State has prohibited the sale of defense articles and services to Venezuela because of lack of cooperation on antiterrorism efforts. Concerns regarding Venezuela in the 110th Congress have focused on human rights, energy, and terrorism issues. On May 24, 2007, the Senate approved S.Res. 211, expressing profound concerns regarding freedom of expression and Venezuela's decision not to renew the license of RCTV. The House version of H.R. 2764, the FY2008 State Department and Foreign Operations appropriations bill approved in June 2007, would have directed $10 million for targeted international broadcasting to Venezuela."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Olhero, Nelson

  2008-04-15
• U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [Updated May 20, 2008]

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  This CRS report discusses the cooperation between the United States and India in the development of a civil nuclear energy program. The report begins by discussing recent developments in the U.S.-Indo nuclear cooperation. In December 2006, President Bush "signed the bill into law (P.L. 109-401)," however, there are certain actions that must be met before "nuclear cooperation can proceed." After this, the report goes into providing background information into U.S.-Indo cooperation in the nuclear sphere. U.S. involvement began during the mid-1950's when it helped India build a nuclear reactor. The report also looks into certain "issues for consideration" that arise due to this nuclear deal. One of these issues is the impact on other nations (especially members of the Nonproliferation Regime) as well as the impact on U.S. Nonproliferation policies. The report concludes by discussing potential issues for the U.S. Congress to consider as a result of this nuclear deal. The report also weighs the potential costs and benefits of the deal- "nonproliferation experts have argued that the potential costs of nuclear cooperation with India to U.S. and global nonproliferation policy may far exceed the benefits. At a time when the United States has called for all states to strengthen their domestic export control laws and for tighter multilateral controls, U.S. nuclear cooperation with India would require loosening its own nuclear export legislation, as well as creating a NSG exception. This is at odds with nearly three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy and practice. Some believe the proposed agreement undercuts the basic bargain of the NPT, could undermine hard-won restrictions on nuclear supply, and could prompt some suppliers, like China, to justify supplying other states outside the NPT regime, like Pakistan. Others contend that allowing India access to the international uranium market will free up its domestic uranium sources to make more nuclear weapons."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kerr, Paul K.

  2008-05-20
• U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [Updated April 23, 2008]

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  "On July 18, 2005, President Bush announced he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader, global partnership with India to promote stability, democracy, prosperity and peace. India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all nuclear material in peaceful nuclear activities, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. Nonproliferation experts have argued that the potential costs of nuclear cooperation with India to U.S. and global nonproliferation policy may far exceed the benefits. At a time when the United States has called for all states to strengthen their domestic export control laws and for tighter multilateral controls, U.S. nuclear cooperation with India would require loosening its own nuclear export legislation, as well as creating a NSG exception. This is at odds with nearly three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy and practice. Some believe the proposed agreement undercuts the basic bargain of the NPT, could undermine hard-won restrictions on nuclear supply, and could prompt some suppliers, like China, to justify supplying other states outside the NPT regime, like Pakistan. Others contend that allowing India access to the international uranium market will free up its domestic uranium sources to make more nuclear weapons."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kerr, Paul K.

  2008-04-23
• U.S. Foreign Aid to East and South Asia: Selected Recipients [Updated May 1, 2008]

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  "This report analyzes annual budget justifications and legislation for foreign operations appropriations and discusses U.S. foreign aid trends, programs, and restrictions in 16 East Asian and South Asian countries. This report does not cover aid to Pacific Island nations, North Korea, and Afghanistan. Since the war on terrorism began in 2001 and the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) and Global HIV/AIDS Initiative (GHAI) were launched in 2004, the United States has increased foreign aid spending dramatically in some regions, including East and South Asia. The United States has raised military, economic, and development assistance primarily for counterterrorism objectives in the East Asia- Pacific (EAP) and South Asia regions, with Pakistan, India, the Philippines, and Indonesia receiving the bulk of the increases. In 2007, the Bush Administration restructured U.S. foreign aid programs to better serve the goal of transformational development, which places greater emphasis on U.S. security and democracy building as the chief goals of foreign aid. […]. This report will be updated periodically to reflect new data."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-

  2008-05-01
• U.S. Global Climate Change Policy: Evolving Views on Cost, Competitiveness, and Comprehensiveness [Updated January 28, 2008]

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  This CRS report discuses the evolution of U.S. Global Climate Change Policy through the years. "U.S. policy toward global climate change evolved from a 'study only' to a more 'study and action' orientation in 1992 with ratification of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Convention committed developed countries to aim at returning their greenhouse gas emissions to their 1990 levels by the year 2000. The U.S. decision to ratify the UNFCCC reflected both the nonbinding nature of the accord and analyses that suggested that the United States could achieve the necessary reduction at little or no cost. Under the UNFCCC, developed countries were to adopt national plans and policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The United States submitted such plans in 1992, 1994, 1997, 2002, and 2006." This report also discusses "The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) [that] has been the principal U.S. statutory response to the UNFCCC. In addition, the George H.W. Bush and Clinton Administrations encouraged voluntary reductions by industry through administrative initiatives, such as the EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency] various 'green' programs ['No Regrets']." The report also talks about the Kyoto Protocol, which laid out limits on emissions for developed nations. The Protocol was earlier referred as Senate Resolution 98 (S. Res. 98).

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry B.; Blodgett, John E.

  2008-01-28
• U.S. Forces in Iraq [Updated July 24, 2008]

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  This CRS report provides information about current U.S. troop levels in Iraq. More specifically, "this report provides solely Department of Defense [DOD] statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. It also provides brief official information on the military units scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Iraq. As of April 1, 2008, according to DOD, the United States had 162,400 troops stationed in Iraq -- 134,500 active component and 27,900 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Waterhouse, Michael; O'Bryant, JoAnne

  2008-07-24
• U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [June 25, 2012]

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  "Since the establishment of limited Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the mid-1990s, the U.S. government has committed over $4 billion in bilateral assistance to the Palestinians, who are among the world's largest per capita recipients of international foreign aid. […] From FY2008 to the present, annual U.S. bilateral assistance to the West Bank and Gaza Strip has averaged nearly $600 million, including annual averages of approximately $200 million in direct budgetary assistance and $100 million in non-lethal security assistance for the PA [Palestinian Authority] in the West Bank. […] Because of congressional concerns that, among other things, funds might be diverted to Palestinian terrorist groups, U.S. aid is subject to a host of vetting and oversight requirements and legislative restrictions. U.S. assistance to the Palestinians is given alongside assistance from other international donors, and U.S. policymakers routinely call for greater or more timely assistance from Arab governments in line with pledges those governments make. Even if the immediate objectives of U.S. assistance programs for the Palestinians are met, lack of progress toward a politically legitimate and peaceful two-state solution could undermine the utility of U.S. aid in helping the Palestinians become more cohesive, stable, and self-reliant over the long term."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zanotti, Jim

  2012-06-25
• United Arab Emirates (UAE): Issues for U.S. Policy [July 17, 2012]

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  "The UAE's [United Arab Emirates] relatively open borders and economy have won praise from advocates of expanded freedoms in the Middle East while producing financial excesses, social ills such as human trafficking, as well as opportunity for both illicit and legitimate Iranian businesses to operate there. Moreover, the social and economic freedoms have not translated into significant political opening; the UAE government remains under the control of a small circle of leaders, even as it allows informal citizen participation and traditional consensus-building. Members of the elite (the ruling families of the seven emirates and clans allied with them) also routinely obtain favored treatment in court cases and lucrative business opportunities. However, economic wealth-- coupled with some government moves against political activists--have enabled the UAE to avoid wide-scale popular unrest that have erupted elsewhere in the Middle East since early 2011. […] For the Obama Administration and many in Congress, there were early concerns about the UAE oversight and management of a complex and technically advanced initiative such as a nuclear power program. This was underscored by dissatisfaction among some Members of Congress with a U.S.-UAE civilian nuclear cooperation agreement. The agreement was signed on May 21, 2009, submitted to Congress that day, and entered into force on December 17, 2009. However, concerns about potential leakage of U.S. and other advanced technologies through the UAE to Iran, in particular, have been largely alleviated by the UAE's development of strict controls, capable management, and cooperation with international oversight of its nuclear program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth; Motivans, Mark

  2012-07-17
• U.S. Trade and Investment Relationship with Sub-Saharan Africa: The African Growth and Opportunity Act and Beyond [Updated October 19, 2005]

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  "Following the end of the apartheid era in South Africa in the early 1990s, the United States sought to increase economic relations with sub-Saharan Africa. President Clinton instituted several measures that dealt with investment, debt relief, and trade. Congress required the President to develop a trade and development policy for Africa. The economic challenges facing Africa today are serious. Unlike the period from 1960 to 1973, when economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa was strong, since 1973 the countries of sub-Saharan Africa have grown at rates well below other developing countries. There are some signs of improvement, but problems such as HIV/AIDS and the debt burden are constraining African economic growth. […] In AGOA [African Growth and Opportunity Act], Congress declared that free-trade agreements should be negotiated, where feasible, with interested sub-Saharan African countries. Related to this provision, negotiations on a free-trade agreement with the Southern African Customs Union, which includes South Africa and four other countries, began in June 2003. Several topics may be important to Congress in the oversight of AGOA and in potential legislation amending the act. These issues concern the expiration of the act, rules of origin provisions concerning textiles and apparel, the use of AGOA's benefits by more countries, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This product will be updated periodically."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; Langton, Danielle

  2005-10-19
• War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [March 20, 2002]

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  "Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This issue brief does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution. […] More recently, war powers have been at issue in former Yugoslavia/ Bosnia/Kosovo, Iraq, Haiti, and in responding to terrorist attacks against the U.S. After combat operations against Iraqi forces ended on February 28, 1991, the use of force to obtain compliance with U.N. resolutions remains an issue. A longer-term issue is whether the War Powers Resolution is an appropriate and effective means of assuring congressional participation in actions that might get the United States involved in war. Some observers contend that the War Powers Resolution has not significantly increased congressional participation, while others emphasize that it has promoted consultation and served as leverage. Proposals have been made to strengthen, change, or repeal the resolution. None have been enacted to date."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2002-03-20
• United Nations Regular Budget Contributions: Members Compared, 1989-2005 [October 27, 2006]

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  "Starting January 1, 2001, the United States was assessed to pay 22% of the annual United Nations regular budget. For calendar year 2005, 22% of the U.N. regular budget amounted to $439,611,612. Prior to January 1, 2001, the assessment level for the United States was 25%. This report shows, for the years 1989 through 2005, the assessment level, actual payment, and total outstanding contributions for the United States and each of the other U.N. members assessed at 1% or higher. For 2004 and 2005, a new category was added: the eight countries with assessments at 0.5% or larger but less than 1%. Three of these countries had, at some time since 1989, been assessed at 1%. Aggregated figures are provided for the rest of the U.N. membership. In 2005, the United States and 16 other nations were assessed to pay 86.408% of the U.N. budget. Contributors in the middle category were collectively assessed to pay 5.986%. In 2005, of the top 17 assessed countries, Brazil and the United States failed to pay their entire assessment and maintained unpaid or outstanding contributions. The matter of U.S. funding to the United Nations has been a high-profile congressional issue for a number of years. This report is updated annually, as the U.N. document upon which the data is based is published."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Browne, Marjorie Ann; Blanchfield, Luisa

  2006-10-27
• U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [December 12, 2007]

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  "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of major contacts since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration began to re-engage the PRC leadership up to the highest level and including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, and the EP-3 aircraft collision crisis in 2001. […] Oversight legislation includes the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY1990- FY1991 (P.L. 101-246); National Defense Authorization Act for FY2000 (P.L. 106- 65); and National Defense Authorization Act for FY2006 (P.L. 109-163). Skeptics and proponents of military exchanges with the PRC have debated whether the contacts have significant value for achieving U.S. objectives and whether the contacts have contributed to the PLA's warfighting capabilities that might harm U.S. security interests. U.S. interests in military contacts with China include: communication, conflict-prevention, and crisis-management; transparency and reciprocity; tension reduction over Taiwan; weapons nonproliferation; strategic nuclear and space talks; counterterrorism; and accounting for POW/MIAs. U.S. defense officials report inadequate cooperation from the PLA, including denials of port visits at Hong Kong by U.S. Navy ships in November 2007. This CRS Report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2007-12-12
• U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [April 1, 2008]

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  "Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. Potential increased SOF involvement in Pakistan and SOF expansion mandated by the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) might be issues for congressional consideration. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Feickert, Andrew

  2008-04-01
• U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [February 2, 2006]

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  "With the recent success of Hamas at the polls, many observers have cautioned that continued foreign assistance to the Palestinian Authority (PA) may be at risk due to Hamas' commitment to the destruction of the state of Israel and its designation as a terrorist group by the United States. Currently, the Palestinians are the largest per capita recipients of foreign aid worldwide and, with a shattered economy, are completely dependent on external support to meet basic needs. Without Western aid, a Hamas-led government may be forced to rely completely on donations from wealthy Arab Gulf states or from Iran. On the other hand, the prospect of losing U.S. and European aid may force Hamas to tone down its radical views and accept Israel's right to exist. In the meantime, foreign donors have been cautious, demanding that Hamas renounce the use of violence and recognize Israel while withholding a complete cessation of aid programs pending the formation of a new Palestinian government."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2006-02-02
• U.S. Embassy in Iraq [April 3, 2007]

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  "The Bush Administration's FY2008 budget request includes $65 million for base funding for operations in Iraq. In addition, the Administration is requesting $823.9 million for mission operations in an FY2007 supplemental request and another $1.9 million for mission operations in an FY2008 emergency request. House and Senate versions of H.R. 1591 would provide supplemental funds for operations in Iraq. A previous emergency supplemental appropriation (H.R. 1268/P.L. 109-13), signed into law on May 11, 2005, included $592 million for embassy construction -- all that is needed for construction of the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad, according to the Department of State. Completion of the embassy is expected by the end of the 2007 summer. Congress provided an additional $1,327.3 million within the FY2006 emergency supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-234, signed June 15, 2006) for mission operations and reconstruction team support in Iraq. No base funding for State Department operations in Iraq was included in the FY2007 appropriation, because of the continuing resolutions and late passage of the FY2007 appropriation law P.L. 110-5 on February 15, 2007. This report discusses reestablishing normal diplomatic ties with Iraq and setting up the new embassy facilities and regional teams. It will be updated as information becomes available."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.

  2007-04-03
• U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Rising Oil Prices [February 14, 2008]

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  "Petroleum prices rose sharply in 2007, at one time reaching $100 per barrel of crude oil. At the same time the average monthly volume of imports of energy-related petroleum products has fallen slightly. The combination of sharply rising prices and a slightly lower level of imports of energy-related petroleum products translates into an escalating cost for those imports. This rising cost added an estimated $50 billion to the nation's trade deficit in 2006 and another $28 billion in 2007. Imported energy prices moderated in early 2007, before rising through the summer and then more sharply in the fall, defying the pattern of declining energy import prices in the fall. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the rising oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit. This report will be updated as warranted by events."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2008-02-14
• Waiver Authority Under the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) [May 5, 2008]

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  "Transportation fuels are required by federal law to contain a minimum amount of renewable fuel each year. This renewable fuel standard (RFS), established by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct, P.L. 109-58) and amended by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA, P.L. 110-140), requires that 9.0 billion gallons of renewable fuels be blended into gasoline and other transportation fuels in 2008. Most of this mandate will be met using corn-based ethanol. However, high prices and tight supplies for oil, gasoline, and food/feed grains have raised concerns over whether the current RFS should be modified or eliminated. Some policymakers are arguing that demand for corn-based ethanol has contributed significantly to price increases for food. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the authority to waive the RFS requirements, in whole or in part, if certain conditions outlined in the law are present. The governor of Texas recently requested a waiver of the RFS because of high grain prices, and there is growing congressional interest in the EPA waiver authority. This report provides a brief overview of the RFS program and discusses the process and criteria for EPA to approve a waiver petition."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2008-05-05
• U.S. Arms Sales to Pakistan [November 8, 2007]

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  "This report briefly reviews the issue of U.S. arms sales to Pakistan. It provides background details regarding recent major weapons transactions between the United States and Pakistan, as well as the rationale given for such sales. It also reviews the current statutory framework that governs U.S. weapons sales to Pakistan, including existing authorities that could be used to curtail or terminate existing or prospective sales to that country. This report will only be updated should events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2007-11-08
• U.S. Forces in Afghanistan [January 23, 2008]

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  "As interest in troop level deployments continues, there remains an increase of U.S. forces in Afghanistan. Last year, President Bush announced in a February 15, 2007, speech the Administration's plans for an increase in U.S. forces in Afghanistan, including a planned gradual increase of 3,200 U.S. troops on the ground. This report provides official Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces now serving in Afghanistan with comparisons to earlier force levels. It also provides brief official information on the military units extended or scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Afghanistan. As of January 2, 2008, according to DOD, the United States had 26,607 troops stationed in Afghanistan -- 20,940 active component and 5,667 National Guard or Reserves. They are serving in two missions -- a NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] -led peacekeeping mission and a separate U.S.-led combat effort called Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL30588, 'Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security and U.S. Policy' by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RL33503, 'U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress', by Andrew Feickert."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

  2008-01-23
• U.S.-Mexico Economic Relations: Trends, Issues, and Implications [January 24, 2006]

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  "Mexico has a population of slightly over 100 million people making it the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the third most populous country in the Western Hemisphere. Based on a gross domestic product (GDP) of $677 billion in 2004 (about six percent of U.S. GDP), Mexico has a free market economy with a strong export sector that is very sensitive to changes in the U.S. economy. Mexico's economy is relatively small compared to the U.S. economy. Economic conditions in Mexico are important to the United States because of the close trade and investment interactions, and because of other social and political issues that could be affected by economic conditions, such as immigration. The bilateral economic relationship with Mexico is among the most important for the United States. The most significant feature of the relationship is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which has been in effect since 1994. In bilateral trade, Mexico is the United States' second most important trading partner, while the United States is Mexico's most important trading partner. In U.S. imports, Mexico ranks third among U.S. trading partners, after Canada and China, while in exports Mexico ranks second, after Canada. The United States is the largest source of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Mexico. These links are critical to many U.S. industries and border communities. […] After the meeting, the three leaders announced the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP) in which they seek to establish a cooperative approach to advance their common security and prosperity; develop a common security strategy; and promote economic growth, competitiveness, and quality of life. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles; Flynn, Paul J.

  2006-01-24
• U.S. Assistance to North Korea: Fact Sheet [January 31, 2006]

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  "This report summarizes U.S. aid to the Democratic People's Republic of North Korea (DPRK, also known as North Korea). It will be updated periodically to track changes in U.S. provision of aid to North Korea. A more extended description and analysis of aid to North Korea, including assistance provided by other countries, is provided in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31785, 'Foreign Assistance to North Korea', by Mark E. Manyin. Since 1995, the United States has provided over $1.1 billion, about 60% of which has paid for food aid. About 40% was energy assistance channeled through the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO), the multilateral organization established in 1994 to provide energy aid in exchange for North Korea's pledge to halt its existing nuclear program. […] This may help explain why, in the summer of 2005, the North Korean government announced it would no longer need humanitarian assistance from the United Nations, including from the World Food Program (WFP), the primary channel for U.S. food aid. Part of Pyongyang's motivation appears to be a desire to negotiate a less intrusive monitoring presence. In response, the WFP shut down its operations and the United States has suspended its food aid shipments. The WFP is negotiating a scaled-down 'development' assistance program with the North Korean government. It plans to present its plan to its Executive Board members in February 2006. The WFP says that food conditions have worsened for some groups since North Korea introduced economic reforms in 2002. U.S. officials, including President Bush, have indicated that United States development assistance might be forthcoming if North Korea begins dismantling its nuclear programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manyin, Mark E.

  2006-01-31
• U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [June 27, 2006]

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  "Since the formation of a Hamas-led Palestinian Authority government in March 2006, the U.S. Administration has suspended its foreign assistance program in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. U.S. policy makers have stated that foreign aid cannot resume until Hamas, a U.S. State Department-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO), renounces, among other things, its commitment to the destruction of the state of Israel and the use of terrorist violence. Hamas has not complied with these demands. In the meantime, media reports suggest that the humanitarian situation for many Palestinians living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip is worsening. The Quartet (the United States, Russia, European Union, and United Nations), in conjunction with the World Bank, has attempted to forge a temporary solution that will avoid working with the Hamas-led government while providing some relief to the Palestinians. Nevertheless, some details of such an arrangement remain undetermined. The Palestinians are the largest per capita recipients of foreign aid worldwide and, with a shattered economy, are mostly dependent on external support to meet basic needs. This report will be updated as events warrant. For more information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks', by Carol Migdalovitz."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Blanchard, Christopher M.

  2006-06-27
• U.S. Forces in Iraq [November 30, 2007]

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  "Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). As interest in troop level deployments continues, President Bush announced 'a new strategy for Iraq' on January 10, 2007, including a planned gradual increase of more than 20,000 U.S. troops on the ground in Baghdad and Anbar province over several months. To accomplish this increase in part, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced on April 11, 2007, that all active-duty Army personnel in the U.S. Central Command area would now serve 15- month tours in the region, up from the previous 12-month rotations. This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. It also provides brief official information on the military units scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Iraq. As of November 1, 2007, according to DOD, the United States had 164,424 troops stationed in Iraq -- 144,745 active component and 19,679 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations', by Steve Bowman."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

  2007-11-30
• U.S. Forces in Iraq [January 11, 2007]

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  "Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). As interest in troop level deployments continue, recently, President Bush announced 'a new strategy for Iraq' on January 10, 2007, including a planned gradual increase of more than 20,000 U.S. troops on the ground in Baghdad and Anbar province in the coming several months. This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. It also provides brief official information on the military units scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Iraq. As of January 1, 2007, according to DOD, the United States had 128,569 troops stationed in Iraq -- 106,296 active component and 22,273 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations', by Steve Bowman."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

  2007-01-11
• War Powers Resolution: After Thirty-Eight Years [September 24, 2012]

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  "Under the Constitution, the war powers are divided between Congress and the President. Among other relevant grants, Congress has the power to declare war and raise and support the armed forces (Article I, section 8), while the President is Commander-in-Chief (Article II, section 2). It is generally agreed that the Commander-in-Chief role gives the President power to utilize the armed forces to repel attacks against the United States, but there has long been controversy over whether he is constitutionally authorized to send forces into hostile situations abroad without a declaration of war or other congressional authorization. […] This report examines the provisions of the War Powers Resolution, actual experience in its use from its enactment in 1973 through August 2012, and proposed amendments to it. Appendix A lists instances which Presidents have reported to Congress under the War Powers Resolution, and Appendix B lists representative instances of the use of U.S. armed forces that were not reported."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2012-09-24
• War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [September 25, 2012]

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  "Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces Armed Forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of Armed Forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution (WPR). The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This report does not deal with the substantive merits of using Armed Forces in specific cases, but rather with congressional authorization for military action, and the application and effectiveness of the WPR. The purpose of the WPR (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the United States involved in hostilities. Compliance becomes an issue whenever the President introduces U.S. forces abroad in situations that might be construed as hostilities or imminent hostilities. Criteria for compliance include prior consultation with Congress, fulfillment of the reporting requirements, and congressional authorization. If the President has not complied fully, the issue becomes what action Congress should take to bring about compliance or to influence U.S. policy. A related issue has been congressional authorization of U.N. peacekeeping or other U.N.-sponsored actions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2012-09-25
• Unemployment Insurance: Programs and Benefits [September 19, 2012]

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  "Various benefits may be available to unemployed workers to provide income support. When eligible workers lose their jobs, the Unemployment Compensation (UC) program may provide up to 26 weeks of income support through the payment of regular UC benefits. Unemployment benefits may be extended for up to 47 weeks by the temporarily authorized Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08) program. Unemployment benefits may be extended for up to a further 13 or 20 weeks by the permanent Extended Benefit (EB) program under certain state economic conditions. Certain groups of workers who lose their jobs because of international competition may qualify for income support through Trade Adjustment Act (TAA) programs. Unemployed workers may be eligible to receive Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA) benefits if they are not eligible for regular UC and if their unemployment may be directly attributed to a declared major disaster. Former U.S. military servicemembers may be eligible for unemployment benefits through the unemployment compensation for ex-servicemembers (UCX) program. The Emergency Unemployment Compensation Act of 1991 (P.L. 102-164) provides that ex-servicemembers be treated the same as other unemployed workers with respect to benefit levels, the waiting period for benefits, and benefit duration."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Whittaker, Julie M.; Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-

  2012-09-19
• Waiver Authority Under the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) [September 25, 2012]

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  "Transportation fuels are required by federal law to contain a minimum amount of renewable fuel each year. This renewable fuel standard (RFS), established by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct, P.L. 109-58) and amended by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA, P.L. 110-140), requires that 15.2 billion gallons of renewable fuels be blended into gasoline and other transportation fuels in 2012. Most of this mandate (87% for 2012) will be met using cornbased ethanol. Other biofuels used to meet the remainder of the mandate include cellulosic biofuels, biomass-based diesel fuels, and other advanced biofuels. Questions have been raised over whether the overall mandate diverts enough corn supply from food/feed production to dramatically raise prices in those markets, and whether there is enough feedstock supply and production capacity to meet the carveouts for fuels other than corn ethanol. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the authority to waive the RFS requirements, in whole or in part, if certain conditions outlined in the law are present. In 2008 the governor of Texas requested a waiver of the RFS because of high grain prices, although that waiver request was denied because EPA determined that the RFS requirements alone did not 'severely harm the economy of a State, a region, or the United States,' a standard required by the statute. A similar waiver petition was filed by the governors of Arkansas and North Carolina in August 2012. Under EPAct, the EPA administrator must approve or disapprove the petition within 90 days of receipt. Because the governor of Arkansas submitted a petition letter to EPA on August 13, 2012, EPA must respond by November 11, 2012. EPA requested comments on the petition, and extended that comment period through October 11, 2012. In February 2010, as part of a final rulemaking implementing the RFS as expanded by EISA, EPA waived most of the 2010 cellulosic biofuel carveout--EISA set the mandate at 100 million gallons but EPA only required 6.5 million gallons, more than 90% less than scheduled by EISA. EPA cited a lack of current and expected production capacity, driven largely by a lack of investment in commercial-scale refineries. Further, for 2011 and 2012, EPA has reduced the cellulosic mandate to 6.6 million and 8.65 million gallons, respectively, well below the 250 million and 500 million gallons scheduled in EISA. This report provides a brief overview of the RFS program and discusses the process and criteria for EPA to approve a waiver petition."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2012-09-25
• U.S. Offshore Oil and Gas Resources: Prospects and Processes [June 30, 2011]

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  "Access to potential oil and gas resources under the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) continues to be controversial. Moratoria on leasing and development in certain areas were largely eliminated in 2008 and 2009, although a few areas remain legislatively off limits to leasing. The 112th Congress may be unlikely to reinstate broad leasing moratoria, but some Members have expressed interest in protecting areas (e.g., the Georges Bank or Northern California) or establishing protective coastal buffers. Pressure to expand oil and gas supplies and protect coastal environments and communities will likely lead Congress and the Administration to consider carefully which areas to keep open to leasing and which to protect from development. The oil spill that occurred on April 20, 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico brought increased attention to offshore drilling risks. Consideration of offshore development for any purpose has raised concerns over the protection of the marine and coastal environment. In addition to the oil spill, historical events associated with offshore oil production, such as the large oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara, CA, in 1969, cause both opponents and proponents of offshore development to consider the risks and to weigh those risks against the economic and social benefits of the development. […] The ultimate impact of oil and gas development in offshore areas will depend on oil and gas prices, volumes of resources actually discovered, infrastructure development, and restrictions placed on development, all of which currently carry significant uncertainties."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphries, Marc; Pirog, Robert L.; Whitney, Gene

  2011-06-30