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Water Infrastructure Needs and Investment: Review and Analysis of Key Issues [Updated November 28, 2007]
"Policymakers are giving increased attention to issues associated with financing and investing in the nation's drinking water and wastewater treatment systems, which take in water, treat it, and distribute it to households and other customers, and later collect, treat, and discharge water after use. The renewed attention is due to a combination of factors. These include financial impacts on communities of meeting existing and anticipated regulatory requirements, the need to repair and replace existing infrastructure, and concerns about paying for security-related projects. The federal government has a long history of involvement with wastewater and drinking water systems, with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) having the most significant role, both in terms of regulation and funding. The U.S. Department of Agriculture also plays an important role in rural communities through its water and wastewater loan and grant programs. These programs have been popular; however, states, local communities, and others have asserted that various program gaps and limitations may be diminishing their potential effectiveness. They also point to the emergence of new infrastructure needs and issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary; Copeland, Claudia
2007-11-28
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U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 3, 2008]
"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen until the mid-1990s. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship has been virtually normalized. Indeed, since 2002, overlapping strategic and economic interests have compelled the United States and Vietnam to improve relations across a wide spectrum of issues. Congress played a significant role in the normalization process and continues to influence the state of bilateral relations. Voices favoring improved relations have included those reflecting U.S. business interests in Vietnam's reforming economy and U.S. strategic interests in expanding cooperation with a populous country -- Vietnam has over 85 million people -- that has an ambivalent relationship with China. Others argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Vietnam's authoritarian government improving its record on human rights. The population of over 1 million Vietnamese Americans, as well as legacies of the Vietnam War, also drive continued U.S. interest. Economic ties are the most mature aspect of the bilateral relationship. Since the United States extended conditional normal trade relations (NTR) to Vietnam in 2001, bilateral trade -- primarily imports from Vietnam -- has increased more than sixfold, to the point where the United States is now Vietnam's largest export market. The final step toward full economic normalization was accomplished in December 2006, when Congress passed and President Bush signed H.R. 6111 (P.L. 109-432), extending permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) status to Vietnam."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2008-01-03
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [Updated January 14, 2008]
"For over three decades, war powers and the War Powers Resolution have been an issue in U.S. military actions in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Central America, and Europe. Presidents have submitted 123 reports to Congress as a result of the War Powers Resolution, although only one (the Mayaguez situation) cited Section 4(a)(1) or specifically stated that forces had been introduced into hostilities or imminent hostilities. […] War powers have been at issue in former Yugoslavia/Bosnia/Kosovo, Iraq, and Haiti. Authorizing military actions in response to the terrorist attacks against the United States of September 11, 2001, through P.L. 107-40 directly involved war powers. The continued use of force to obtain Iraqi compliance with U.N. resolutions remained a war powers issue from the end of the Gulf war on February 28, 1991, until the enactment of P.L. 107-243, in October 2002, which explicitly authorized the President to use force against Iraq, an authority he exercised in March 2003, and continues to exercise for military operations in Iraq. Debate continues on whether using the War Powers Resolution is effective as a means of assuring congressional participation in decisions that might get the United States involved in a significant military conflict."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2008-01-14
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U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel [Updated January 2, 2008]
"This report provides an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to Israel. It includes a review of past aid programs, data on annual assistance figures, and an analysis of current issues. The report will be updated annually to reflect developments over the previous year... Israel is the largest cumulative recipient of U.S. foreign assistance since World War II. From 1976-2004, Israel was the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance, having recently been supplanted by Iraq. Since 1985, the United States has provided nearly $3 billion in grants annually to Israel... Strong congressional support for Israel has resulted in Israel's receiving benefits that may not be available to other countries. For example, Israel can use U.S. military assistance both for research and development in the United States and for military purchases from Israeli manufacturers. In addition, all U.S. foreign assistance earmarked for Israel is delivered in the first 30 days of the fiscal year."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2008-01-02
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Uganda: Current Conditions and the Crisis in North Uganda [Updated December 7, 2007]
"In February 2006, Ugandans voted in the first multi-party elections in almost 26 years. President Yoweri Museveni and his ruling National Revolutionary Movement (NRM) parliamentary candidates won a decisive victory over opposition candidate Kizza Besigye and the Forum for Democracy Coalition. Nevertheless, poll results showed a notable decline in support for President Museveni from previous elections. International election observers did not condemn the election results, nor did they fully endorse the electoral process. Critics charged the government with intimidating the opposition during the pre-election period, and Besigye spent much of the campaign period in jail. The election followed a controversial move by the Ugandan parliament in July 2005 to remove the constitutional two-term limit on the presidency. In the north, the government of Uganda has long fought the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), an armed rebel group backed by the government of Sudan. Through over 20 years of civil war, the brutal insurgency has created a humanitarian crisis that has displaced over 1.5 million and resulted in the abduction of over 20,000 children. In 2006-07, the government of Uganda and the LRA have been actively engaged in an effort to resolve the conflict peacefully. The Government of Southern Sudan (GOSS) has been mediating the talks since June 2006. The negotiations have had some success in halting the fighting. In August 2006, the government of Uganda and the LRA signed a Cessation of Hostilities Agreement. The cessation of hostilities has allowed an estimated 400,000 displaced people to return to their homes."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.; Reeves, Hannah
2007-12-07
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U.S.-Latin American Trade: Recent Trends [Updated January 2, 2008]
"Since Congress passed Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) legislation in August 2002 (P.L. 107-210), the United States has entered into free trade agreements (FTAs) with Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Central American countries, and Peru. The United States has also concluded FTAs with Colombia and Panama, which await congressional action. Talks on the region-wide Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), by contrast, have stalled. The 110th Congress may consider implementing legislation for one or both of the pending bilateral agreements. This report provides an analytical overview of U.S.-Latin American trade data and trends in support of congressional interest in U.S.-Latin American trade relations. It will be updated. Trade is one of the driving issues in contemporary U.S.-Latin America relations. Although not the largest, Latin America is the fastest growing U.S. regional trade partner, with the exception of Africa, which has had strong export growth based largely on the recent rise of petroleum prices. Between 1996 and 2006, total U.S. merchandise trade (exports plus imports) with Latin America grew by 118% compared to 96% for Asia (driven largely by China), 95% for the European Union, 239% for Africa, and 104% for the world. There are two import caveats. First, most of the growth in Latin American trade was due to Mexico, the largest U.S. regional trade partner in dollar terms. Second, U.S. imports grew more than twice as fast as exports."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)
2008-01-02
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Venezuela: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy [Updated April 15, 2008]
"The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been friction with the Chávez government. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about human rights, Venezuela's military arms purchases, its relations with Cuba and Iran, and its efforts to export its brand of populism to other Latin American countries. Declining cooperation on anti-drug and anti-terrorism efforts has also been a U.S. concern. Since 2005, President Bush has annually designated Venezuela as a country that has failed demonstrably to adhere to its obligations under international narcotics agreements, and since 2006, the Department of State has prohibited the sale of defense articles and services to Venezuela because of lack of cooperation on antiterrorism efforts. Concerns regarding Venezuela in the 110th Congress have focused on human rights, energy, and terrorism issues. On May 24, 2007, the Senate approved S.Res. 211, expressing profound concerns regarding freedom of expression and Venezuela's decision not to renew the license of RCTV. The House version of H.R. 2764, the FY2008 State Department and Foreign Operations appropriations bill approved in June 2007, would have directed $10 million for targeted international broadcasting to Venezuela."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Olhero, Nelson
2008-04-15
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U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [Updated May 20, 2008]
This CRS report discusses the cooperation between the United States and India in the development of a civil nuclear energy program. The report begins by discussing recent developments in the U.S.-Indo nuclear cooperation. In December 2006, President Bush "signed the bill into law (P.L. 109-401)," however, there are certain actions that must be met before "nuclear cooperation can proceed." After this, the report goes into providing background information into U.S.-Indo cooperation in the nuclear sphere. U.S. involvement began during the mid-1950's when it helped India build a nuclear reactor. The report also looks into certain "issues for consideration" that arise due to this nuclear deal. One of these issues is the impact on other nations (especially members of the Nonproliferation Regime) as well as the impact on U.S. Nonproliferation policies. The report concludes by discussing potential issues for the U.S. Congress to consider as a result of this nuclear deal. The report also weighs the potential costs and benefits of the deal- "nonproliferation experts have argued that the potential costs of nuclear cooperation with India to U.S. and global nonproliferation policy may far exceed the benefits. At a time when the United States has called for all states to strengthen their domestic export control laws and for tighter multilateral controls, U.S. nuclear cooperation with India would require loosening its own nuclear export legislation, as well as creating a NSG exception. This is at odds with nearly three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy and practice. Some believe the proposed agreement undercuts the basic bargain of the NPT, could undermine hard-won restrictions on nuclear supply, and could prompt some suppliers, like China, to justify supplying other states outside the NPT regime, like Pakistan. Others contend that allowing India access to the international uranium market will free up its domestic uranium sources to make more nuclear weapons."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.
2008-05-20
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U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [Updated April 23, 2008]
"On July 18, 2005, President Bush announced he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader, global partnership with India to promote stability, democracy, prosperity and peace. India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all nuclear material in peaceful nuclear activities, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. Nonproliferation experts have argued that the potential costs of nuclear cooperation with India to U.S. and global nonproliferation policy may far exceed the benefits. At a time when the United States has called for all states to strengthen their domestic export control laws and for tighter multilateral controls, U.S. nuclear cooperation with India would require loosening its own nuclear export legislation, as well as creating a NSG exception. This is at odds with nearly three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy and practice. Some believe the proposed agreement undercuts the basic bargain of the NPT, could undermine hard-won restrictions on nuclear supply, and could prompt some suppliers, like China, to justify supplying other states outside the NPT regime, like Pakistan. Others contend that allowing India access to the international uranium market will free up its domestic uranium sources to make more nuclear weapons."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.
2008-04-23
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U.S. Foreign Aid to East and South Asia: Selected Recipients [Updated May 1, 2008]
"This report analyzes annual budget justifications and legislation for foreign operations appropriations and discusses U.S. foreign aid trends, programs, and restrictions in 16 East Asian and South Asian countries. This report does not cover aid to Pacific Island nations, North Korea, and Afghanistan. Since the war on terrorism began in 2001 and the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) and Global HIV/AIDS Initiative (GHAI) were launched in 2004, the United States has increased foreign aid spending dramatically in some regions, including East and South Asia. The United States has raised military, economic, and development assistance primarily for counterterrorism objectives in the East Asia- Pacific (EAP) and South Asia regions, with Pakistan, India, the Philippines, and Indonesia receiving the bulk of the increases. In 2007, the Bush Administration restructured U.S. foreign aid programs to better serve the goal of transformational development, which places greater emphasis on U.S. security and democracy building as the chief goals of foreign aid. […]. This report will be updated periodically to reflect new data."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-
2008-05-01
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U.S. Global Climate Change Policy: Evolving Views on Cost, Competitiveness, and Comprehensiveness [Updated January 28, 2008]
This CRS report discuses the evolution of U.S. Global Climate Change Policy through the years. "U.S. policy toward global climate change evolved from a 'study only' to a more 'study and action' orientation in 1992 with ratification of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Convention committed developed countries to aim at returning their greenhouse gas emissions to their 1990 levels by the year 2000. The U.S. decision to ratify the UNFCCC reflected both the nonbinding nature of the accord and analyses that suggested that the United States could achieve the necessary reduction at little or no cost. Under the UNFCCC, developed countries were to adopt national plans and policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The United States submitted such plans in 1992, 1994, 1997, 2002, and 2006." This report also discusses "The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) [that] has been the principal U.S. statutory response to the UNFCCC. In addition, the George H.W. Bush and Clinton Administrations encouraged voluntary reductions by industry through administrative initiatives, such as the EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency] various 'green' programs ['No Regrets']." The report also talks about the Kyoto Protocol, which laid out limits on emissions for developed nations. The Protocol was earlier referred as Senate Resolution 98 (S. Res. 98).
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parker, Larry B.; Blodgett, John E.
2008-01-28
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U.S. Forces in Iraq [Updated July 24, 2008]
This CRS report provides information about current U.S. troop levels in Iraq. More specifically, "this report provides solely Department of Defense [DOD] statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. It also provides brief official information on the military units scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Iraq. As of April 1, 2008, according to DOD, the United States had 162,400 troops stationed in Iraq -- 134,500 active component and 27,900 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Waterhouse, Michael; O'Bryant, JoAnne
2008-07-24
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U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [June 25, 2012]
"Since the establishment of limited Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the mid-1990s, the U.S. government has committed over $4 billion in bilateral assistance to the Palestinians, who are among the world's largest per capita recipients of international foreign aid. […] From FY2008 to the present, annual U.S. bilateral assistance to the West Bank and Gaza Strip has averaged nearly $600 million, including annual averages of approximately $200 million in direct budgetary assistance and $100 million in non-lethal security assistance for the PA [Palestinian Authority] in the West Bank. […] Because of congressional concerns that, among other things, funds might be diverted to Palestinian terrorist groups, U.S. aid is subject to a host of vetting and oversight requirements and legislative restrictions. U.S. assistance to the Palestinians is given alongside assistance from other international donors, and U.S. policymakers routinely call for greater or more timely assistance from Arab governments in line with pledges those governments make. Even if the immediate objectives of U.S. assistance programs for the Palestinians are met, lack of progress toward a politically legitimate and peaceful two-state solution could undermine the utility of U.S. aid in helping the Palestinians become more cohesive, stable, and self-reliant over the long term."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim
2012-06-25
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United Arab Emirates (UAE): Issues for U.S. Policy [July 17, 2012]
"The UAE's [United Arab Emirates] relatively open borders and economy have won praise from advocates of expanded freedoms in the Middle East while producing financial excesses, social ills such as human trafficking, as well as opportunity for both illicit and legitimate Iranian businesses to operate there. Moreover, the social and economic freedoms have not translated into significant political opening; the UAE government remains under the control of a small circle of leaders, even as it allows informal citizen participation and traditional consensus-building. Members of the elite (the ruling families of the seven emirates and clans allied with them) also routinely obtain favored treatment in court cases and lucrative business opportunities. However, economic wealth-- coupled with some government moves against political activists--have enabled the UAE to avoid wide-scale popular unrest that have erupted elsewhere in the Middle East since early 2011. […] For the Obama Administration and many in Congress, there were early concerns about the UAE oversight and management of a complex and technically advanced initiative such as a nuclear power program. This was underscored by dissatisfaction among some Members of Congress with a U.S.-UAE civilian nuclear cooperation agreement. The agreement was signed on May 21, 2009, submitted to Congress that day, and entered into force on December 17, 2009. However, concerns about potential leakage of U.S. and other advanced technologies through the UAE to Iran, in particular, have been largely alleviated by the UAE's development of strict controls, capable management, and cooperation with international oversight of its nuclear program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth; Motivans, Mark
2012-07-17
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U.S. Trade and Investment Relationship with Sub-Saharan Africa: The African Growth and Opportunity Act and Beyond [Updated October 19, 2005]
"Following the end of the apartheid era in South Africa in the early 1990s, the United States sought to increase economic relations with sub-Saharan Africa. President Clinton instituted several measures that dealt with investment, debt relief, and trade. Congress required the President to develop a trade and development policy for Africa. The economic challenges facing Africa today are serious. Unlike the period from 1960 to 1973, when economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa was strong, since 1973 the countries of sub-Saharan Africa have grown at rates well below other developing countries. There are some signs of improvement, but problems such as HIV/AIDS and the debt burden are constraining African economic growth. […] In AGOA [African Growth and Opportunity Act], Congress declared that free-trade agreements should be negotiated, where feasible, with interested sub-Saharan African countries. Related to this provision, negotiations on a free-trade agreement with the Southern African Customs Union, which includes South Africa and four other countries, began in June 2003. Several topics may be important to Congress in the oversight of AGOA and in potential legislation amending the act. These issues concern the expiration of the act, rules of origin provisions concerning textiles and apparel, the use of AGOA's benefits by more countries, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This product will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Langton, Danielle
2005-10-19
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [March 20, 2002]
"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This issue brief does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution. […] More recently, war powers have been at issue in former Yugoslavia/ Bosnia/Kosovo, Iraq, Haiti, and in responding to terrorist attacks against the U.S. After combat operations against Iraqi forces ended on February 28, 1991, the use of force to obtain compliance with U.N. resolutions remains an issue. A longer-term issue is whether the War Powers Resolution is an appropriate and effective means of assuring congressional participation in actions that might get the United States involved in war. Some observers contend that the War Powers Resolution has not significantly increased congressional participation, while others emphasize that it has promoted consultation and served as leverage. Proposals have been made to strengthen, change, or repeal the resolution. None have been enacted to date."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2002-03-20
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United Nations Regular Budget Contributions: Members Compared, 1989-2005 [October 27, 2006]
"Starting January 1, 2001, the United States was assessed to pay 22% of the annual United Nations regular budget. For calendar year 2005, 22% of the U.N. regular budget amounted to $439,611,612. Prior to January 1, 2001, the assessment level for the United States was 25%. This report shows, for the years 1989 through 2005, the assessment level, actual payment, and total outstanding contributions for the United States and each of the other U.N. members assessed at 1% or higher. For 2004 and 2005, a new category was added: the eight countries with assessments at 0.5% or larger but less than 1%. Three of these countries had, at some time since 1989, been assessed at 1%. Aggregated figures are provided for the rest of the U.N. membership. In 2005, the United States and 16 other nations were assessed to pay 86.408% of the U.N. budget. Contributors in the middle category were collectively assessed to pay 5.986%. In 2005, of the top 17 assessed countries, Brazil and the United States failed to pay their entire assessment and maintained unpaid or outstanding contributions. The matter of U.S. funding to the United Nations has been a high-profile congressional issue for a number of years. This report is updated annually, as the U.N. document upon which the data is based is published."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Browne, Marjorie Ann; Blanchfield, Luisa
2006-10-27
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U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [December 12, 2007]
"This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of major contacts since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration began to re-engage the PRC leadership up to the highest level and including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, and the EP-3 aircraft collision crisis in 2001. […] Oversight legislation includes the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY1990- FY1991 (P.L. 101-246); National Defense Authorization Act for FY2000 (P.L. 106- 65); and National Defense Authorization Act for FY2006 (P.L. 109-163). Skeptics and proponents of military exchanges with the PRC have debated whether the contacts have significant value for achieving U.S. objectives and whether the contacts have contributed to the PLA's warfighting capabilities that might harm U.S. security interests. U.S. interests in military contacts with China include: communication, conflict-prevention, and crisis-management; transparency and reciprocity; tension reduction over Taiwan; weapons nonproliferation; strategic nuclear and space talks; counterterrorism; and accounting for POW/MIAs. U.S. defense officials report inadequate cooperation from the PLA, including denials of port visits at Hong Kong by U.S. Navy ships in November 2007. This CRS Report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kan, Shirley
2007-12-12
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U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [April 1, 2008]
"Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. Potential increased SOF involvement in Pakistan and SOF expansion mandated by the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) might be issues for congressional consideration. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2008-04-01
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U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [February 2, 2006]
"With the recent success of Hamas at the polls, many observers have cautioned that continued foreign assistance to the Palestinian Authority (PA) may be at risk due to Hamas' commitment to the destruction of the state of Israel and its designation as a terrorist group by the United States. Currently, the Palestinians are the largest per capita recipients of foreign aid worldwide and, with a shattered economy, are completely dependent on external support to meet basic needs. Without Western aid, a Hamas-led government may be forced to rely completely on donations from wealthy Arab Gulf states or from Iran. On the other hand, the prospect of losing U.S. and European aid may force Hamas to tone down its radical views and accept Israel's right to exist. In the meantime, foreign donors have been cautious, demanding that Hamas renounce the use of violence and recognize Israel while withholding a complete cessation of aid programs pending the formation of a new Palestinian government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2006-02-02
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U.S. Embassy in Iraq [April 3, 2007]
"The Bush Administration's FY2008 budget request includes $65 million for base funding for operations in Iraq. In addition, the Administration is requesting $823.9 million for mission operations in an FY2007 supplemental request and another $1.9 million for mission operations in an FY2008 emergency request. House and Senate versions of H.R. 1591 would provide supplemental funds for operations in Iraq. A previous emergency supplemental appropriation (H.R. 1268/P.L. 109-13), signed into law on May 11, 2005, included $592 million for embassy construction -- all that is needed for construction of the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad, according to the Department of State. Completion of the embassy is expected by the end of the 2007 summer. Congress provided an additional $1,327.3 million within the FY2006 emergency supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-234, signed June 15, 2006) for mission operations and reconstruction team support in Iraq. No base funding for State Department operations in Iraq was included in the FY2007 appropriation, because of the continuing resolutions and late passage of the FY2007 appropriation law P.L. 110-5 on February 15, 2007. This report discusses reestablishing normal diplomatic ties with Iraq and setting up the new embassy facilities and regional teams. It will be updated as information becomes available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2007-04-03
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U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Rising Oil Prices [February 14, 2008]
"Petroleum prices rose sharply in 2007, at one time reaching $100 per barrel of crude oil. At the same time the average monthly volume of imports of energy-related petroleum products has fallen slightly. The combination of sharply rising prices and a slightly lower level of imports of energy-related petroleum products translates into an escalating cost for those imports. This rising cost added an estimated $50 billion to the nation's trade deficit in 2006 and another $28 billion in 2007. Imported energy prices moderated in early 2007, before rising through the summer and then more sharply in the fall, defying the pattern of declining energy import prices in the fall. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the rising oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit. This report will be updated as warranted by events."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2008-02-14
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Waiver Authority Under the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) [May 5, 2008]
"Transportation fuels are required by federal law to contain a minimum amount of renewable fuel each year. This renewable fuel standard (RFS), established by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct, P.L. 109-58) and amended by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA, P.L. 110-140), requires that 9.0 billion gallons of renewable fuels be blended into gasoline and other transportation fuels in 2008. Most of this mandate will be met using corn-based ethanol. However, high prices and tight supplies for oil, gasoline, and food/feed grains have raised concerns over whether the current RFS should be modified or eliminated. Some policymakers are arguing that demand for corn-based ethanol has contributed significantly to price increases for food. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the authority to waive the RFS requirements, in whole or in part, if certain conditions outlined in the law are present. The governor of Texas recently requested a waiver of the RFS because of high grain prices, and there is growing congressional interest in the EPA waiver authority. This report provides a brief overview of the RFS program and discusses the process and criteria for EPA to approve a waiver petition."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Yacobucci, Brent D.
2008-05-05
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U.S. Arms Sales to Pakistan [November 8, 2007]
"This report briefly reviews the issue of U.S. arms sales to Pakistan. It provides background details regarding recent major weapons transactions between the United States and Pakistan, as well as the rationale given for such sales. It also reviews the current statutory framework that governs U.S. weapons sales to Pakistan, including existing authorities that could be used to curtail or terminate existing or prospective sales to that country. This report will only be updated should events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2007-11-08
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U.S. Forces in Afghanistan [January 23, 2008]
"As interest in troop level deployments continues, there remains an increase of U.S. forces in Afghanistan. Last year, President Bush announced in a February 15, 2007, speech the Administration's plans for an increase in U.S. forces in Afghanistan, including a planned gradual increase of 3,200 U.S. troops on the ground. This report provides official Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces now serving in Afghanistan with comparisons to earlier force levels. It also provides brief official information on the military units extended or scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Afghanistan. As of January 2, 2008, according to DOD, the United States had 26,607 troops stationed in Afghanistan -- 20,940 active component and 5,667 National Guard or Reserves. They are serving in two missions -- a NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] -led peacekeeping mission and a separate U.S.-led combat effort called Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL30588, 'Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security and U.S. Policy' by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RL33503, 'U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress', by Andrew Feickert."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael
2008-01-23
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U.S.-Mexico Economic Relations: Trends, Issues, and Implications [January 24, 2006]
"Mexico has a population of slightly over 100 million people making it the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the third most populous country in the Western Hemisphere. Based on a gross domestic product (GDP) of $677 billion in 2004 (about six percent of U.S. GDP), Mexico has a free market economy with a strong export sector that is very sensitive to changes in the U.S. economy. Mexico's economy is relatively small compared to the U.S. economy. Economic conditions in Mexico are important to the United States because of the close trade and investment interactions, and because of other social and political issues that could be affected by economic conditions, such as immigration. The bilateral economic relationship with Mexico is among the most important for the United States. The most significant feature of the relationship is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which has been in effect since 1994. In bilateral trade, Mexico is the United States' second most important trading partner, while the United States is Mexico's most important trading partner. In U.S. imports, Mexico ranks third among U.S. trading partners, after Canada and China, while in exports Mexico ranks second, after Canada. The United States is the largest source of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Mexico. These links are critical to many U.S. industries and border communities. […] After the meeting, the three leaders announced the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP) in which they seek to establish a cooperative approach to advance their common security and prosperity; develop a common security strategy; and promote economic growth, competitiveness, and quality of life. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Villarreal, M. Angeles; Flynn, Paul J.
2006-01-24
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U.S. Assistance to North Korea: Fact Sheet [January 31, 2006]
"This report summarizes U.S. aid to the Democratic People's Republic of North Korea (DPRK, also known as North Korea). It will be updated periodically to track changes in U.S. provision of aid to North Korea. A more extended description and analysis of aid to North Korea, including assistance provided by other countries, is provided in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31785, 'Foreign Assistance to North Korea', by Mark E. Manyin. Since 1995, the United States has provided over $1.1 billion, about 60% of which has paid for food aid. About 40% was energy assistance channeled through the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO), the multilateral organization established in 1994 to provide energy aid in exchange for North Korea's pledge to halt its existing nuclear program. […] This may help explain why, in the summer of 2005, the North Korean government announced it would no longer need humanitarian assistance from the United Nations, including from the World Food Program (WFP), the primary channel for U.S. food aid. Part of Pyongyang's motivation appears to be a desire to negotiate a less intrusive monitoring presence. In response, the WFP shut down its operations and the United States has suspended its food aid shipments. The WFP is negotiating a scaled-down 'development' assistance program with the North Korean government. It plans to present its plan to its Executive Board members in February 2006. The WFP says that food conditions have worsened for some groups since North Korea introduced economic reforms in 2002. U.S. officials, including President Bush, have indicated that United States development assistance might be forthcoming if North Korea begins dismantling its nuclear programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2006-01-31
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U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [June 27, 2006]
"Since the formation of a Hamas-led Palestinian Authority government in March 2006, the U.S. Administration has suspended its foreign assistance program in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. U.S. policy makers have stated that foreign aid cannot resume until Hamas, a U.S. State Department-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO), renounces, among other things, its commitment to the destruction of the state of Israel and the use of terrorist violence. Hamas has not complied with these demands. In the meantime, media reports suggest that the humanitarian situation for many Palestinians living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip is worsening. The Quartet (the United States, Russia, European Union, and United Nations), in conjunction with the World Bank, has attempted to forge a temporary solution that will avoid working with the Hamas-led government while providing some relief to the Palestinians. Nevertheless, some details of such an arrangement remain undetermined. The Palestinians are the largest per capita recipients of foreign aid worldwide and, with a shattered economy, are mostly dependent on external support to meet basic needs. This report will be updated as events warrant. For more information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks', by Carol Migdalovitz."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2006-06-27
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U.S. Forces in Iraq [November 30, 2007]
"Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). As interest in troop level deployments continues, President Bush announced 'a new strategy for Iraq' on January 10, 2007, including a planned gradual increase of more than 20,000 U.S. troops on the ground in Baghdad and Anbar province over several months. To accomplish this increase in part, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced on April 11, 2007, that all active-duty Army personnel in the U.S. Central Command area would now serve 15- month tours in the region, up from the previous 12-month rotations. This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. It also provides brief official information on the military units scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Iraq. As of November 1, 2007, according to DOD, the United States had 164,424 troops stationed in Iraq -- 144,745 active component and 19,679 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations', by Steve Bowman."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael
2007-11-30
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U.S. Forces in Iraq [January 11, 2007]
"Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). As interest in troop level deployments continue, recently, President Bush announced 'a new strategy for Iraq' on January 10, 2007, including a planned gradual increase of more than 20,000 U.S. troops on the ground in Baghdad and Anbar province in the coming several months. This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. It also provides brief official information on the military units scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Iraq. As of January 1, 2007, according to DOD, the United States had 128,569 troops stationed in Iraq -- 106,296 active component and 22,273 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations', by Steve Bowman."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael
2007-01-11
