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International Discussions Concerning Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems [Updated April 19, 2021]
From the Document: "Lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS), or weapons designed to independently select and engage targets without the need for manual human control, could enable military operations in communications-degraded or -denied environments where traditional systems may not be able to operate. LAWS are not yet in widespread development. However, as technology advances--particularly artificial intelligence (AI)--a larger number of countries may consider developing and operating LAWS. This could hold potential implications for congressional oversight, defense investments, military concepts of operations, treaty-making, and the future of warfare. As has been the case throughout history, incorporation of new technology into weapons systems creates a number of potential legal, ethical, strategic, and operational problems. For this reason, some members of the international community seek through international discussions to constrain--if not ban--LAWS."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sayler, Kelley M.
2021-04-19
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Terrorism Funding: FY2002 Appropriation Bills [October 25, 2001]
From the Summary: "Using baseline data provided by the Office of Management and Budget, this report organizes and tracks U.S. spending to combat terrorism across the 13 appropriation bills, including amounts allocated from the $40 billion emergency supplemental. Over 80% of the estimated $11 billion requested for FY2002 to combat terrorism falls in two appropriation measures: the Defense Department appropriation and the Departments of Commerce, Justice, State, the Judiciary and Related Agencies appropriation. Table 1 provides a summary for each bill and a total for all 13. Tables 2 through 13 present separate pages for each appropriation measure, listing in most cases spending at the account level. [...] Data presented in this report indicate where funds are concentrated and highlight new spending initiatives that have emerged since September 11."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nowels, Larry Q.
2001-10-25
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House and Senate Committee Organization and Jurisdiction: Considerations Related to Proposed Department of Homeland Security [June 10, 2002]
From the Summary: "The creation of a Department of Homeland Security, along the lines proposed by the Administration, would affect the jurisdiction of numerous House and Senate committees. In addition, the expansiveness of the proposal may cause Congress to consider using alternative procedures and structures to review the proposal and to monitor the implementation of such a new department. This report discusses the current legislative jurisdictions of House and Senate committees with responsibility over terrorism, homeland security, and the agencies affected by the proposed new department. It also examines alternative procedures and structures Congress might employ in studying the proposal, such as creating a select committee. Finally, it identifies options for committee organization to monitor a Department of Homeland Security after its creation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schneider, Judy
2002-06-10
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Recovery from Terrorist Attacks: A Catalog of Selected Federal Assistance Programs [Updated February 1, 2002]
From the Introduction: "Following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, on New York City and Washington, DC, Members of Congress from affected jurisdictions asked CRS [Congressional Research Service] to compile a list of federal programs that could assist recovery from the results of such attacks in urban areas. Subsequently, Members from jurisdictions not directly affected have requested such a compilation, in the event their jurisdiction were to experience an attack. The programs listed in this catalog can be classified into two broad categories. First are programs specifically for disaster situations. Second are general assistance programs that may apply to disaster situations. The programs can also be classified by recipients, primarily individuals, state and local governments, or businesses. The programs address such short-term needs as food and shelter, and such long-term needs as repair of public utilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-02-01
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India and Pakistan: Current U.S. Economic Sanctions [Updated February 11, 2002]
From the Summary: "In 1998, India and Pakistan each conducted tests of nuclear explosive devices, drawing world condemnation. The United States and a number of India's and Pakistan's major trading partners imposed economic sanctions in response. Most U.S. economic sanctions were lifted or eased within a few months of their imposition, however, and Congress gave the President the authority to remove all remaining restrictions in 1999. [...] Today, the United States imposes no economic sanctions against the governments of Pakistan or India."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.
2002-02-11
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Executive Order 12919: Emergency Powers of the President [October 23, 2000]
From the Summary: "Executive Order 12919 concerns industrial preparedness during times of war and national emergency. This brief report uses simple language to describe what Executive Order 12919 does. It is intended to clarify common misunderstandings about the Order's purpose and scope. [...] Executive Order 12919 relates exclusively to the preparedness of U.S. defense-related industries in times of war or other national emergencies. It has nothing whatever to do with declarations of martial law. It has no effect at all on the continued powers of Congress and the federal courts during periods of war or other national emergencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Burdette, Robert B.
2000-10-23
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Combating Terrorism: Emergency Supplemental Appropriations - Distribution of Funds to Departments and Agencies [Updated March 18, 2002]
From the Summary: "In response to the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, Congress passed the $40-billion 2001 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Recovery from and Response to Terrorist Attacks on the United States, P.L. 107-38 (H.R. 2888). The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) developed guidelines and criteria (presented in this report) for use of these funds. Tables in this report detail distribution of the terrorism emergency supplemental funds by department/agency, by date, and present a ranking of departments/agencies receiving funds. [...] This report tracks only dispersal of funds from the emergency supplemental. It does not track all federal costs or expenditures that may be associated with the attacks and the response to them."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Riehl, James R.
2002-03-18
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Military Funding for Southwest Border Barriers [Updated September 27, 2019]
From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD, or the Department) has played a prominent role in the Trump Administration's border security strategy because of controversies related to $13.3 billion in defense funding it has sought to use for border barrier construction projects not otherwise authorized by Congress. These defense funds would comprise a complex mix of DOD program savings and unobligated military construction funds from past years ($6.1 billion), as well as a request for new appropriations in FY2020 ($7.2 billion). An additional $2 billion in non-DOD appropriations are often cited as part of the Administration's overall border funding plan. These include $1.375 billion in previously enacted FY2019 Department of Homeland Security (DHS) appropriations, and $601 million in contributions from a Treasury Forfeiture Fund (TFF) that manages seized assets. Altogether, these defense and non-defense funds would total $15.3 billion, of which 87% would be DOD funds."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mann, Christopher T.
2019-09-27
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Congress's Authority to Limit the Removal of Inspectors General [April 16, 2021]
From the Summary: "Federal law establishes a variety of inspectors general (IGs), each of whom is generally tasked with detecting waste, fraud, and abuse through independent and objective investigations, audits, and reviews of the agency or program for which they are responsible. In 2020, the level of independence that IGs possess received significant public and congressional attention after President Donald Trump removed or replaced two permanent and two acting IGs in the span of two months. Although IGs are independent and objective units, they are not completely insulated from executive branch influence. Under the Inspector General Act of 1978 (IG Act), IGs are appointed, supervised, and removed by either the President or agency leadership."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garvey, Todd
2021-04-16
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Climate Change Risk Disclosures and the Securities and Exchange Commission [April 20, 2021]
From the Summary: "Potential risks to the U.S. financial system from climate change have attracted growing attention in government, academia, and media, raising questions about the roles of financial regulators in addressing such risks. [...] The Securities and Exchange Commission's(SEC's)mission is to protect investors; maintain fair, orderly, and efficient markets; and facilitate capital formation. As part of this mission, the SEC issued 'Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change' in 2010 to assist publicly listed companies in evaluating when climate change risks require disclosure."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Miller, Rena S.; Vanatko, Nicole; Shorter, Gary W.
2021-04-20
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China's New Semiconductor Policies: Issues for Congress [April 20, 2021]
From the Introduction: "Many Members of Congress and U.S. policymakers are concerned that China's state-led semiconductor policies, if successful, could lead to the loss of U.S. technological leadership and significantly shift global semiconductor production and related design and research capabilities to China. Chinese semiconductor competencies could support a range of technology advancements, including military applications. Although some countries, including the United States, support their domestic semiconductor industry, the scope and scale of China's state-led efforts are unprecedented when considering the amount of state funding involved, the Chinese government's ambitions to lead across the entire semiconductor value chain, the targeting of U.S. and foreign capabilities, and the particular methods that China is using, which appear to challenge current global rules and norms."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sutter, Karen M.
2021-04-20
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Defense Primer: Army Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) [Updated April 22, 2021]
From the Document: "As an operational concept, Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) influence what types of weapon systems and equipment the Army procures, what types and numbers of soldiers are needed, and what type of training is required-- significant legislative concerns for Congress. In this regard, an understanding of MDO could prove beneficial for congressional oversight activities. [...] According to the U.S. Army's Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC): Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) describes how the U.S. Army, as part of the joint force [Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines] can counter and defeat a near-peer adversary capable of contesting the U.S. in all domains [air, land, maritime, space, and cyberspace] in both competition and armed conflict. The concept describes how U.S. ground forces, as part of the joint and multinational team, deter adversaries and defeat highly capable near-peer enemies in the 2025-2050 timeframe. MDO provides commanders numerous options for executing simultaneous and sequential operations using surprise and the rapid and continuous integration of capabilities across all domains to present multiple dilemmas to an adversary in order to gain physical and psychological advantages and influence and control over the operational environment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2021-04-22
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Disaster Resilience Investments: Community Development Block Grant Authorities for Mitigation (CDBG-MIT) [April 22, 2021]
From the Document: "In response to disasters, Congress has provided supplemental appropriations under Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) authorities that include funding for long-term disaster recovery, or CDBG-DR. In some recent cases, these investments have included targeted funding for mitigating future disaster risks, or CDBG-MIT. This In Focus considers CDBG-MIT's background, purpose, and structure, as well as policy considerations for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jaroscak, Joseph V.; Cecire, Michael H.
2021-04-22
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Climate Change: Selected Federal Economic Development Tools and Policy Considerations [April 22, 2021]
From the Document: "Social, economic, and ecological risks associated with climate change, such as those documented in the U.S. Fourth National Climate Assessment and by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, have significant economic development implications. These include increased demand for federal economic development interventions, such as for infrastructure resiliency, and support for labor and economic dislocations resulting from energy transition. This In Focus considers potential federal economic development tools to help address climate change, as well as policy considerations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cecire, Michael; Leggett, Jane A.
2021-04-22
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Coup-Related Restrictions in U.S. Foreign Aid Appropriations [Updated April 21, 2021]
From the Document: "Events over the past year in Burma and Mali have brought attention to a provision that has appeared in annual State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations legislation since 1986 that restricts U.S. foreign assistance following a coup d'état."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Arieff, Alexis; Lawson, Marian Leonardo; Chesser, Susan G.
2021-04-21
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China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress [Updated October 2, 2019]
From the Summary: "The U.S. Navy in recent years has taken a number of actions to counter China's naval modernization effort. Among other things, the U.S. Navy has shifted a greater percentage of its fleet to the Pacific; assigned its most-capable new ships and aircraft and its best personnel to the Pacific; maintained or increased general presence operations, training and developmental exercises, and engagement and cooperation with allied and other navies in the Pacific; increased the planned future size of the Navy; initiated, increased, or accelerated numerous programs for developing new military technologies and acquiring new ships, aircraft, unmanned vehicles, and weapons; begun development of new operational concepts (i.e., new ways to employ Navy and Marine Corps forces) for countering Chinese maritime A2/AD [anti-access/area-denial] forces; and signaled that the Navy in coming years will shift to a more-distributed fleet architecture that will feature a smaller portion of larger ships, a larger portion of smaller ships, and a substantially greater use of unmanned vehicles. The issue for Congress is whether the U.S. Navy is responding appropriately to China's naval modernization effort."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2019-10-02
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U.S. Payment System Policy Issues: Faster Payments and Innovation [September 23, 2019]
From the Document: "This report examines technological innovation in payment systems generally and particular policy issues as a result of retail (i.e., point of sale) payment innovation. The report also discusses wholesale payment, clearing, and settlement systems that send payment messages between banks and transfer funds, including the 'real-time payments' service being introduced by the Federal Reserve. This report includes an Appendix that describes interbank payment, clearing, and settlement systems related to U.S. payments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, Cheryl R.; Perkins, David W.; Labonte, Marc
2019-09-23
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South Sudan [Updated October 28, 2019]
From the Document: "Peace has been elusive in South Sudan, which became the world's newest country in 2011. Nearly 400,000 people are estimated to have died as a result of a civil war that began in 2013. The war has displaced over 4 million people, including over 2 million refugees who have fled to neighboring countries. It is Africa's largest refugee crisis."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Lauren Ploch
2019-10-28
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Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 [October 30, 2019]
From the Background: "Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. §2411) grants the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) a range of responsibilities and authorities to investigate and take action to enforce U.S. rights under trade agreements and respond to certain foreign trade practices. Prior to the Trump Administration and since the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations in 1995, which established the World Trade Organization (WTO), the United States has used Section 301 authorities primarily to build cases and pursue dispute settlement at the WTO. However, President Trump has been more willing to act unilaterally under these authorities to promote what the Administration considers to be 'free,' 'fair,' and 'reciprocal' trade. The Trump Administration's use of Section 301 has been the subject of congressional and broader international debate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schwarzenberg, Andres B.
2019-10-30
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Ozone and Particulate Matter Air Standards: EPA Review [Updated October 30, 2019]
From the Document: "The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to review the standards for national ambient air quality every five years. In 2018, EPA announced strategies to expedite the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) review process while concurrently disbanding a pollutant-specific scientific review panel that has historically advised agency staff during their reviews. Although the CAA allows the EPA Administrator to specify the procedures for review of the NAAQS, past EPA reviews and revisions have garnered considerable congressional oversight. This In Focus discusses the status of EPA's current NAAQS reviews for ozone and particulate matter (PM), which EPA intends to complete in 2020, and issues of potential interest to Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shouse, Kate C.; Esworthy, Robert
2019-10-30
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NPV--the National Popular Vote Initiative: Proposing Direct Election of the President Through an Interstate Compact [Updated October 29, 2019]
From the Document: "The NPV [National Popular Vote] Initiative proposes an interstate compact, an agreement among the states that would effectively achieve direct popular election of the President and Vice President without a constitutional amendment. Each state that joins the NPV agrees to appoint electors pledged to the candidates who won the nationwide popular vote. Election authorities in the member states would count and certify the vote, which would be aggregated and certified as 'the nationwide popular vote.' Member state legislatures would then appoint the slate of electors pledged to the nationwide popular vote winner. They would do this regardless of who won the popular vote in their state. The compact would come into effect only if its success were assured--that is, only after states controlling a majority of electoral votes (270 or more) had joined the compact. States could withdraw from the compact, but if they did so within six months of a presidential election, the withdrawal would not take effect until after that election."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Neale, Thomas H.
2019-10-29
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Response Options to Oil Supply Disruptions [November 1, 2019]
From the Overview: "The September 2019 oil infrastructure attacks in Saudi Arabia temporarily disrupted production and processing of approximately 6% of global crude oil supply. This resulted in the largest single-day price increase over the last 10 years, as measured by West Texas Intermediate (WTI, the U.S. domestic oil price benchmark). This effect on U.S. domestic price levels from a temporary disruption in a foreign country illustrates the integrated and global nature of crude oil markets. Interruptions in oil supply could affect the price of crude oil and petroleum products (e.g., gasoline). The volume and rate at which lost supply is restored are key factors that contribute to the duration and magnitude of price effect. Also, assured access to crude oil is associated with energy independence and energy security. There are two primary options to replace lost or interrupted supplies: releasing stockpiles or using spare capacity. These and other options may be of interest to Congress during a crude oil supply disruption."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Greenley, Heather L.
2019-11-01
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 14, 2021]
From the Summary: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the post-Soviet states that gained their independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid in Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to have a 'hybrid' political system, containing both democratic and nondemocratic elements. The center-left Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia (GD) party has governed Georgia since 2012. Controversy over the October 2020 parliamentary elections, an opposition boycott of parliament, and the February 2021 arrest of opposition leader Nika Melia have led to heightened political tensions. European Union (EU) efforts to mediate Georgia's political crisis have been unsuccessful. Although Georgia faces high rates of poverty and underemployment, its economy entered a period of relatively strong growth in 2017. In 2020, due to the impact of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, Georgia's gross domestic product declined by an estimated 6%."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2021-04-14
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Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA): By the Numbers [April 14, 2021]
From the Document: "On January 20, 2021, his first day in office, President Joe Biden issued a memorandum to the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the U.S. Attorney General on the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) initiative. The presidential memorandum directed the DHS Secretary, in consultation with the Attorney General, to 'take all actions he deems appropriate, consistent with applicable law, to preserve and fortify DACA.' [...] To help inform possible legislative activity related to DACA and Dreamers, this report considers available data on the DACA population from DHS and other sources. An initial background section provides a brief history of DACA and its current status. Three categories of data are then presented and discussed: (1) data on the DACA-eligible population, (2) data on DACA applications, and (3) data on DACA recipients. Finally, the report addresses the issue of unauthorized immigrants and LPR status, focusing in particular on DACA recipients and related data."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2021-04-14
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Federal Scientific Integrity Policies: A Primer [Updated April 16, 2021]
From the Introduction: "The U.S. government supports a range of research and development (R&D) to help maintain economic competitiveness, strengthen national security, improve health care, and protect the environment. There is broad agreement among policymakers and the scientific and engineering community about the importance of ensuring federal, academic, and private sector R&D activities proceed with integrity and their results are openly communicated. Accurate and credible scientific information is important to many policy development and decisionmaking processes. Over the years, some Members of Congress and scientific and environmental advocacy organizations have alleged that presidential administrations of both parties have violated the principles of scientific integrity. This report provides an overview of scientific integrity and discusses selected issues for congressional consideration."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallo, Marcy E.
2021-04-16
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GAO and Inspector General Recommendations to Agencies: An Introduction [April 12, 2021]
From the Document: "Congress has established a number of institutions dedicated to monitoring and reporting on federal agencies and making recommendations to improve their integrity, efficiency, and effectiveness. These entities include dozens of statutory Offices of Inspector General (OIGs) and the Government Accountability Office (GAO), each of which has a mission focused on the economy, efficiency, and effectiveness of the federal government's operations. [...] This In Focus introduces the topic of GAO and OIG recommendations, their underlying statutory frameworks, and how they might be relevant to Congress. While this In Focus covers both GAO and OIG recommendations because of their practical similarities, GAO and the OIGs are established by different statutes, have distinct missions and roles, and perform their duties in their own ways."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wilhelm, Ben
2021-04-12
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Energy Credit or Energy Investment Tax Credit (ITC) [Updated April 23, 2021]
From the Document: "Internal Revenue Code (IRC) Section 48 provides an investment tax credit (ITC) for certain energy-related property. This In Focus summarizes the current renewable energy ITC and reviews its legislative history."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sherlock, Molly F.
2021-04-23
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Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy [Updated April 20, 2021]
From the Summary: "Bahrain is a small island nation, ruled by a hereditary monarchy, that is in a partnership with other Arab monarchies of the Persian Gulf called the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman). Bahrain is led by King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, who succeeded his father, Shaykh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, upon his death in 1999. U.S.-Bahrain ties are long-standing and have deepened over the past four decades as the Gulf region has become highly volatile. The country has hosted a U.S. naval command headquarters for the Gulf region since 1948, and the United States and Bahrain have had a formal Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA) since 1991. In 2004, Bahrain was designated by the United States as a 'major non-NATO ally.' There are nearly 5,000 U.S. forces, mostly Navy, serving at the naval facility and other bases in Bahrain, and the country is a significant buyer of U.S.-made arms. In 2014, Bahrain joined the U.S.-led coalition combatting the Islamic State and flew strikes against the group's fighters in Syria that year."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2021-04-20
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Youth Provisions in the Supporting Foster Youth and Families Through the Pandemic Act (Division X of P.L. 116-260) [April 21, 2021]
From the Summary: "This report focuses on the youth provisions in the Supporting Foster Youth and Families through the Pandemic Act, enacted as Division X of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, FY2021 (P.L. 116-260). The act includes provisions that make temporary changes to child welfare and home visiting policies in response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The youth policies are intended to assist foster youth during the pandemic, including those who are no longer in care. Compared to their peers generally, current and former foster experience poor outcomes in education, employment, housing stability, and other markers of adulthood. Such challenges appear to be heightened because of the pandemic, as reported in news publications and surveys of youth."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fernandes-Alcantara, Adrienne L.
2021-04-21
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Army's Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle (OMFV) Program: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated April 19, 2021]
From the Document: "The Army's Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle (OMFV) is the Army's third attempt to replace the M-2 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) which has been in service since the early 1980s. Despite numerous upgrades since its introduction, the Army contends the M-2 is near the end of its useful life and can no longer accommodate the types of upgrades needed for it to be effective on the modern battlefield. Because the OMFV would be an important weapon system in the Army's Armored Brigade Combat Teams (ABCTs), Congress may be concerned with how the OMFV would impact the effectiveness of ground forces over the full spectrum of military operations. Moreover, Congress might also be concerned with how much more capable the OMFV is projected to be over the M-2 Bradley to ensure that it is not just a costly marginal improvement over the current system. A number of past unsuccessful Army acquisition programs have served to heighten congressional oversight of Army programs, and the OMFV may be subject to a high degree of congressional interest."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2021-04-19
