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• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales since 1990 [February 16, 2010]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty with Taiwan."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2010-02-16
• Syria: Background and U.S. Relations [September 14, 2009]

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  "Despite its weak military and lackluster economy, Syria remains relevant in Middle Eastern geopolitics. The Asad regime has its hands in each of the four major active or potential zones of conflict in the region (Lebanon, Israel-Palestine, Iraq, and Iran). In the Levant, Syrian leaders aim to dominate the internal politics of Lebanon, and have been accused of involvement in the assassination of four parliamentarians and former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. The Asad regime has resisted U.S. and French attempts to bolster the pro-Western government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, believing that it can weather the storm of U.S. pressure over time. Syria also plays a key role in the Middle East peace process, acting at times as a 'spoiler' by sponsoring Palestinian militants and facilitating the rearmament of Hezbollah. [...]. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, largely because of Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175, which imposed additional economic sanctions against Syria. In recent years, the Administration has designated several Syrian entities as weapons proliferators and sanctioned several Russian companies for alleged WMD or advanced weapons sales to Syria. [...].This report analyzes an array of bilateral issues that continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2009-09-14
• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [November 5, 2009]

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  "The federal government spends approximately one third of its annual research and development [R&D] budget for intramural R&D to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. These applications can result from technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. [...] Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, State governments are increasingly involved in the process. At issue is whether incentives for technology transfer remain necessary, if additional legislative initiatives are needed to encourage increased technology transfer, or if the responsibility to use the available resources now rests with the private sector."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2009-11-05
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [Updated January 8, 2008]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. At the U.S.-Taiwan arms sales talks on April 24, 2001, President George W. Bush approved for possible sale diesel-electric submarines, P-3 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft (linked to the submarine sale), four decommissioned U.S. Kidd-class destroyers, and other items. Bush also deferred decisions on Aegisequipped destroyers and other items, while denying other requests. Since then, attention has turned to Taiwan, where the military, civilian officials, and legislators from competing political parties have debated contentious issues about how much to spend on defense and which U.S. weapons systems to acquire, despite the increasing threat (including a missile buildup) from the People's Liberation Army (PLA), as described in the Pentagon's reports to Congress on PRC military power. In February 2003, the Administration pointed Taiwan to three priorities for defense: command and control, missile defense, and ASW."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2008-01-08
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2008 Appropriations [Updated December 14, 2007]

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  "The annual State, Foreign Operations and Related Agencies appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in general. Funding for Foreign Operations and State Department/Broadcasting programs has been steadily rising since FY2002, and amounts approved for FY2004 in regular and supplemental bills reached an unprecedented level compared with the past 40 years. Emergency supplementals enacted since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks to assist the front-line states in the war on terrorism, fund Afghanistan and Iraq reconstruction, and upgrade State Department operations and security upgrades, also have pushed spending upward. This report analyzes the FY2008 budget request and funding trends, including major issues Congress may consider, and tracks congressional action. Major issues confronting the 110th Congress include: 1. The overall size of the budget request that represents an 11% increase over FY2007 enacted levels; 2. A foreign aid reform plan that seeks to align assistance with U.S. strategic objectives; 3. Significant increases for Presidential initiatives; 4. Continued costs relating to Iraq and Afghanistan; and 5. Secretary Rice's Transformational Diplomacy initiative for the State Department."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Veillette, Connie

  2007-12-14
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2008 Appropriations [Updated October 24, 2007]

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  "The annual State, Foreign Operations and Related Agencies appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in general. Funding for Foreign Operations and State Department/Broadcasting programs has been steadily rising since FY2002, and amounts approved for FY2004 in regular and supplemental bills reached an unprecedented level compared with the past 40 years. Emergency supplementals enacted since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks to assist the front-line states in the war on terrorism, fund Afghanistan and Iraq reconstruction, and upgrade State Department operations and security upgrades, also have pushed spending upward. […]This report analyzes the FY2008 budget request and funding trends, including major issues Congress may consider, and tracks congressional action."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2007-10-24
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated January 24, 2008]

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  "In response to political developments in Taiwan, the Bush Administration is widely seen to have dialed back its initial public enthusiasm for supporting Taiwan initiatives, particularly those seen as provocative or as challenges to what the United States understand as the 'status quo.' While still pursuing a closer U.S. relationship with Taiwan, U.S. officials now appear to be balancing criticisms of the PRC military buildup opposite Taiwan with periodic cautions and warnings to Taiwan that some of its actions are 'unhelpful ' and that U.S. support for Taiwan is not unconditional, but has limits. […]. While these recent actions have succeeded in further elevating the concept of Taiwan nationalism, even among the DPP's KMT opponents, many in the electorate appear wary of the more strident and confrontational aspects of President Chen's political positions. This, combined with a series of corruption scandals involving Chen administration officials and the president's family members, has led to record low approval ratings for President Chen and a growing political outcry against him. These political trends have raised anxieties about the prospects for a future political and constitutional crisis in Taiwan that could further complicate U.S. policy. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2008-01-24
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated December 14, 2007]

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  "In response to political developments in Taiwan, the Bush Administration is widely seen to have dialed back its initial public enthusiasm for supporting Taiwan initiatives, particularly those seen as provocative or as challenges to what the United States understand as the 'status quo.' While still pursuing a closer U.S. relationship with Taiwan, U.S. officials now appear to be balancing criticisms of the PRC military buildup opposite Taiwan with periodic cautions and warnings to Taiwan that some of its actions are 'unhelpful' and that U.S. support for Taiwan is not unconditional, but has limits. This represents a marked departure from the early days of the George W. Bush Administration, when the White House seemed to abandon the long-standing U.S. policy of 'strategic ambiguity' on Taiwan in favor of 'strategic clarity' that placed more emphasis on Taiwan's interests and less on PRC concerns.[…]This initial policy approach was in keeping with growing congressional sentiment that greater U.S. support was needed for Taiwan's defense needs, particularly given the PRC's military build-up in southern China.[…] Since then, U.S.-Taiwan relations have undergone important changes, sparked in part by the increasing complexity and unpredictability of Taiwan's democratic political environment. […]In 2007, President Chen [Shui-ban] has made pursuing full United Nations membership under the name 'Taiwan' one of his policy priorities, despite PRC opposition and strong U.S. statements of discouragement. […]These political trends have raised anxieties about the prospects for a future political and constitutional crisis in Taiwan that could further complicate U.S. policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2007-12-14
• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [Updated November 6, 2007]

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  "The federal government spends approximately one third of its annual research and development budget1 for intramural R&D to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. These applications can result from technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. It is a way for the results of the federal R&D enterprise to be used to meet other national needs, including the economic growth that flows from new commercialization in the private sector; the government's requirements for products and processes to operate effectively and efficiently; and the demand for increased goods and services at the state and local level. Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, State governments are increasingly involved in the process."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2007-11-06
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [February 11, 2009]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty with Taiwan. [...]. In 2008, congressional concerns mounted about a suspected 'freeze' in President Bush's notifications to Congress on eight pending arms sales as well as his refusal to accept Taiwan's request for F-16C/D fighters. On October 3, 2008, Bush finally notified Congress. However, he submitted only six of the eight pending sales for a value of $6.5 billion, or half of the total. The Administration did not submit for congressional review the pending programs for Black Hawk helicopters or the submarine design. Moreover, the sale of PAC-3 missile defense systems was broken up into two parts. The 111th Congress might further reassert the legislated role in determinations of Taiwan's needs and oversee President Obama's adherence to the TRA. There could be congressional oversight of any U.S. policy review and clarification of any objective process to consider Taiwan's requests for weapons."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2009-02-11
• Taiwan-U.S. Relations: Recent Developments and Their Policy Implications [January 7. 2009]

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  This CRS report "focuses on current developments in Taiwan, analyzing how those developments are affecting choices the United States makes about its policy toward Taiwan specifically and toward the PRC (People's Republic of China) more broadly. Other CRS reports provide more details about the myriad historical complexities of Taiwan's current situation in U.S. policy, such as: historical background about how the ROC on Taiwan went from a U.S. ally to a government with no diplomatic U.S. relations, including the fundamentals governing U.S. policy toward Taiwan today (CRS Report RS22388, Taiwan's Political Status: Historical Background and Ongoing Implications); the increase in U.S.-Taiwan tensions under the former administration of President Chen Shui-bian (CRS Report RL33684, Underlying Strains in U.S.-Taiwan Political Relations); the 2008 elections in Taiwan (CRS Report RS22853, Taiwan's 2008 Presidential Election), all by Kerry Dumbaugh, and the subtle and complicated permutations of the 'one-China' policy over three decades and its role in U.S. policy (CRS Report RL30341, China/Taiwan: Evolution of the 'One China' Policy -- Key Statements from Washington, Beijing, and Taipei), by Shirley A. Kan. [...] U.S.-Taiwan relations have undergone important changes, sparked in part by the increasing complexity of Taiwan's democratic political environment and the continued insistence of Beijing that the separately ruled Taiwan is a part of the People's Republic of China (PRC)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2009-01-07
• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [March 2, 2009]

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  This CRS report discusses the use of federally funded research and development. "Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, State governments are increasingly involved in the process. At issue is whether incentives for technology transfer remain necessary, if additional legislative initiatives are needed to encourage increased technology transfer, or if the responsibility to use the available resources now rests with the private sector."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2009-03-02
• Strategic Airlift Modernization: Analysis of C-5 Modernization and C-17 Acquisition Issues [March 15, 2008]

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  "Strategic airlift has played a pivotal role in U.S. national security strategy since World War II. Since then, strategic airlift has provided timely worldwide reach for both combat and humanitarian relief operations. The Department of Defense (DOD) currently operates a mix of C-5 and C-17 aircraft. C-5s were built in two production batches, designated the C-5A and C-5B, respectively. A total of 52 C-5s are scheduled to undergo two major modification programs, after which they will be redesignated C-5M 'Super Galaxies'; the remaining 59 C-5s will a major avionics upgrade. C-17s are currently in production, but the C-17 production line is scheduled to close unless additional orders are placed in an anticipated FY2008 supplemental appropriations bill. A major issue currently before Congress is how big should the strategic airlift fleet be. There is a consensus among policy makers that the DOD must maintain a robust and effective strategic airlift fleet. Currently, the most pressing issue is whether Congress should appropriate money for the purchase of more C-17s in anticipated FY2008 supplemental bills and, if so, for how many. A third potential issue is the optimal mix of C-5s and C-17s that Congress should fund in FY2009 and beyond."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Knight, William; Bolkcom, Christopher C.

  2008-03-15
• Strategic Airlift Modernization: Analysis of C-5 Modernization and C-17 Acquisition Issues [November 28, 2007]

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  "Strategic airlift has played a pivotal role in U.S. national security strategy since World War II. Since then, strategic airlift has provided timely worldwide reach for both combat and humanitarian relief operations. The Department of Defense (DOD) currently operates a mix of C-5 and C-17 aircraft. C-5s were built in two production batches, designated the C-5A and C-5B, respectively. Both models of C-5s are scheduled to undergo two major modification programs, after which they will be redesignated C-5M 'Super Galaxies'. C-17s are currently in production, but the C-17 production line is scheduled to close unless additional orders are placed in FY2008. […] Most agree the strategic airlift fleet should consist of a mix of C-17s and modified C-5s. Independent studies have analyzed policy options by attempting to measure long-term costs associated with various alternatives of C-5 modernization with C-17 acquisition. However, there remains disagreement over how many aircraft are required, and of what type. Policy considerations include costs, budget constraints, industrial base risk, aircraft performance considerations, and optimal fleet mix. In addition to the aforementioned options, DOD could increase use of commercial aircraft, encourage foreign or civilian sales of the C-17, bolster reliance on pre-positioning of equipment, leverage potential KC-X airlift capability, pursue airships or hybrid airships, or simply accept less strategic airlift capability. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Knight, William; Bolkcom, Christopher C.

  2007-11-28
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [May 23, 2008]

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  "In a large turnout on March 22, 2008, voters in Taiwan elected as president Mr. Ma Ying-jeou of the Nationalist (KMT) Party. Mr. Ma out-polled rival candidate Frank Hsieh, of the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), by a 2.2 million vote margin of 58% to 42%. Coming on the heels of the KMT's sweeping victory in January's legislative elections, the result appears to be a further repudiation of Taiwan President Chen Shui-bian's eight-year record of governance. President-elect Ma, who began his tenure on May 20, 2008, has promised to improve Taiwan's economic performance, to improve Taiwan's damaged relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC), and to address any annoyances in Taiwan-U.S. relations arising from the Chen Administration. […] Under the new KMT government, then, the United States will be faced with challenges familiar from past years, including decisions on new arms sales; how to accommodate requests for visits to the United States by Ma and other senior Taiwan officials; the level of U.S. relations with the Ma government; whether to pursue closer economic ties; and what role, if any, Washington should play in cross-strait relations. The 110th Congress has been concerned with bolstering U.S. support for Taiwan and helping to improve Taiwan's international position. Relevant legislation includes: H.R. 2764 (P.L. 110-161); H.R. 1390; H.R. 3912/S. 1565; H.Con.Res. 73; H.Con.Res. 136; H.Con.Res. 137; H.Con.Res. 170; H.Con.Res. 250; S.Con.Res. 48; and S.Con.Res. 60. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2008-05-23
• Strategic Petroleum Reserve [September 7, 2005]

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  "Hurricane Katrina made landfall early in the morning of August 29, inflicting severe damage and shutting down oil and gas production and refining activities in the Gulf of Mexico. Damage assessments continue. On August 31, Secretary of Energy Bodman indicated that the Bush Administration was authorizing releases of Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) crude oil. By September 6, requests for loans totaling roughly 12.5 million barrels had been approved to operating refineries whose crude supply has been interrupted by the hurricane. On August 8, 2005, the President signed the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58). The bill as enacted permanently authorizes the SPR and requires, 'as expeditiously as practicable,' expansion of the SPR to its authorized maximum of 1 billion barrels. The SPR, with a capacity of 727 million barrels, currently holds 700 million barrels, though the amount will decline as refiners borrow or buy crude. […] Any fill policy is also to take into consideration minimizing income foregone to the Treasury by filling the SPR with additional RIK oil. Given these parameters and the difficulty of predicting the state of oil markets in the future, it is unclear whether, once sites are identified, fill will be resumed The Administration request for FY2006 for the SPR itself was $166.0 million, a reduction of roughly $4 million from the FY2005 appropriation. No new money was requested for the NHOR in FY2006 owing to prior year balances of $5.3 million. The House- and Senate-passed versions of the FY2006 Energy and Water Development Appropriations bill support the levels proposed by the Administration."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bamberger, Robert

  2005-09-07
• Tactical Aircraft Modernization: Issues for Congress [March 16, 2006]

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  "This Issue Brief examines DOD's [Department of Defense] four largest tactical aircraft modernization programs. The background section provides a brief description of each program, and a discussion of how tactical aircraft fit into military air operations: the missions they typically perform and how they contrast to longer-range combat aircraft. The Analysis section examines a number of policy issues including affordability, capability required, force structure, service roles and missions, industrial base, and transformation. The paper concludes with a synopsis of recent congressional action on these programs. […] The next-generation combat aircraft that are expected to result from joint-service efforts now getting underway through the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program might be in production through the 2020s. Decisions about the funding of these programs will influence which U.S. aircraft manufacturers survive in the aviation industry, and may well affect the division of combat roles and missions among the services in the next century. Congress has questioned these tactical aircraft modernization plans on grounds of affordability and requirements. Because of the lack of consensus about future threats and defense requirements, there has been increasing skepticism about the need for some of these aircraft programs on grounds of cost and affordability, military requirements and force levels, and effects on the defense industrial base. Debate has also emerged on the need to balance modernization needs with military transformation goals."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bolkcom, Christopher C.

  2006-03-16
• Temporarily Filling Presidentially Appointed, Senate-Confirmed Positions [April 23, 2007]

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  "A vacant presidentially appointed, Senate-confirmed position (PAS position) can be filled temporarily under one of several authorities that do not require going through the Senate confirmation process. Under specific circumstances, many executive branch vacancies can be filled temporarily under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998 or by recess appointment. In some cases, temporary filling of vacancies in a particular position is specifically provided for in statute. Generally, designation or appointment under one of these methods confers upon the official the legal authority to carry out the duties of the office. Alternatively, an individual may be hired by the agency as a consultant. A consultant does not carry the legal authority of the office, and may act only in an advisory capacity. These temporary appointment tools may be of interest to the 110th Congress as the Administration of President George W. Bush completes its last two years. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hogue, Henry B.

  2007-04-23
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [June 22, 2006]

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  "Syria, governed by President Hafiz al-Asad from 1970 until his death in June 2000, is a prominent player in the Middle East scene. Within the region, a number of border disputes, problems of resource allocation, and political rivalries have caused frequent tensions between Syria and its neighbors. In particular, disposition of the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967, has been one of the most intractable issues in the Arab-Israeli dispute. This report supercedes Issue Brief IB92075, Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues, and will be updated as significant developments occur. An array of bilateral issues continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria: the course of Arab-Israeli talks; questions of arms proliferation; Syrian connections with terrorist activity; Syria's role in Lebanon; and Syria's opposition to the U.S. occupation in Iraq. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, due largely to Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. Syria has reportedly cooperated with the United States in investigating Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda organization in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks but has been unwilling to sever connections with some other terrorist organizations. Also, after Operation Iraqi Freedom began in March 2003, senior U.S. officials warned Syria to stop permitting transit of military supplies and volunteer fighters through Syria to Iraq. Syria has denied these allegations, and cited measures it has taken to tighten its borders."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2006-06-22
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated June 8, 2006]

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  "Under the Bush Administration, U.S.- China-Taiwan relations have undergone a number of changes. Initially, the new Administration seemed to abandon the long-standing U.S. policy of 'strategic ambiguity' on Taiwan in favor of 'strategic clarity' that placed more emphasis on Taiwan's interests and less on PRC concerns. Among other things, President Bush publicly stated that the United States would do 'whatever it takes' to help Taiwan's defense- a position more supportive of Taiwan than had been articulated by previous U.S. presidents...Political trends in Taiwan have raised anxieties about its future and the implications for U.S. policy. Some are concerned that a continued emphasis on 'Taiwan identity' may lead to ethnic polarization and conflict. Others are concerned about the implications that these trends have for a possible declaration of Taiwan independence, which Beijing has vowed to 'pay any price' to prevent. In recent months, political developments in Taiwan appear to be causing the Bush Administration to dial back its earlier enthusiasm for supporting Taiwan. U.S. officials now appear to be balancing criticisms of the PRC military buildup opposite Taiwan with periodic cautions and warnings to the effect that U.S. support for Taiwan is not unconditional, but has limits. This issue brief tracking the situation in Taiwan will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2006-06-08
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated June 6, 2006]

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  "An array of bilateral issues continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria: the course of Arab-Israeli talks; questions of arms proliferation; Syrian connections with terrorist activity; Syria's role in Lebanon; and Syria's opposition to the U.S. occupation in Iraq. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, due largely to Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. Syria has reportedly cooperated with the United States in investigating Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda organization in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks but has been unwilling to sever connections with - some other terrorist organizations. During a visit to Damascus on May 3, 2003, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell warned Syria to withdraw support from terrorist organizations and has repeated the warning since then. Also, after Operation Iraqi Freedom began in March 2003, senior U.S. officials warned Syria to stop permitting transit of military supplies and volunteer fighters through Syria to Iraq. Syria denied these allegations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2006-06-06
• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [July 7, 2006]

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  "The federal government spends approximately one third of its annual research and development budget1 for intramural R&D to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. These applications can result from technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. It is a way for the results of the federal R&D enterprise to be used to meet other national needs, including the economic growth that flows from new commercialization in the private sector; the government's requirements for products and processes to operate effectively and efficiently; and the demand for increased goods and services at the state and local level. Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2006-07-07
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated July 27, 2006]

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  "Since the outbreak of fighting between Israeli military forces and the militant Lebanese Shi'ite Hezbollah organization on July 12, 2006, U.S. officials have increased their criticism of Syria's political and logistical support for Hezbollah. On July 22, President Bush commented that '[f]or many years, Syria has been a primary sponsor of Hezbollah and it has helped provide Hezbollah with shipments of Iranian-made weapons.' Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, speaking to reporters on July 26, rejected comments that the United States and Syria lack diplomatic channels for communication, pointing out that there are existing diplomatic channels that can be used when Syrian leaders are ready to talk. A Syrian official, however, said 'Syria is not going to help while it is being isolated and President Bush is attacking Syria all the time.' She was quoted by Reuters News Wire on July 26 as saying that Syria should not be allowed to return to Lebanon and influence events there, and neither should Iran. Also, on July 26, Secretary Rice warned Syria and Iran not to 'torpedo' any attempts to stop the fighting between Hezbollah and Israeli forces and expressed the hope that the two countries would 'behave responsibly.' Meanwhile, news reports indicated that Hezbollah leader Sheikh Hassan Nasrallah met with Syrian President Bashar al-Asad on July 27, possibly to discuss resupply of Hezbollah."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2006-07-27
• Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated June 1, 2006]

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  "On May 4, 2006, the Government of National Unity and the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) signed the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) after almost two years of negotiations. The agreement was rejected by two other Darfur groups: the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) and a splinter group from the SLM. The agreement calls for the integration of SLA troops into the Sudan Armed Forces, provides $300 million initially and $200 million for the next two years for reconstruction and compensation purposes for Darfur, and establishes the Transitional Darfur Regional Authority (TDRA). The agreement provides seats for the SLM in the national and regional parliaments and several top positions, including the chairmanship of the TDRA. The agreement also calls for the disarmament and demobilization of the Janjaweed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2006-06-01
• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [Updated May 30, 2006]

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  "The government spends approximately one third of the $83 billion federal R&D budget for intramural research and development to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. This can be achieved by technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. It is a way for the results of the federal R&D enterprise to be used to meet other national needs, including the economic growth that flows from new commercialization in the private sector; the government's requirements for products and processes to operate effectively and efficiently; and the demand for increased goods and services at the state and local level."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2006-05-30
• Terminal Operators and Their Role in U.S. Port and Maritime Security [April 20, 2006]

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  "The failed attempt by Dubai Ports World (DP World) to operate marine terminals at some U.S. ports raises the issue of whether foreign marine terminal operators pose a threat to U.S. homeland security. Notwithstanding the proposed sale of U.S. terminal operations by DP World to a U.S. entity, the underlying issue remains because many U.S. marine terminals are operated by foreign-based companies and a similar transaction could occur in the future, given the global nature of the shipping industry. Evaluating the potential security ramifications of foreign-based terminal operators requires first understanding how ports work and who is in charge of their security. Most major U.S. ports are publicly owned by a 'port authority,' which is a public organization associated with a city, county, regional, or state government. A port typically contains many terminals that are each designed to handle different types of cargo. Some port authorities operate all or some of their marine terminals, but most ports lease their facilities to several different terminal operating companies. All of the cargo handling that takes place on a marine terminal is performed by members of a longshoremen's union."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lake, Jennifer E.; Frittelli, John

  2006-04-20
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [June 29, 2006]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. […] Several policy issues are of concern to Congress for legislation, oversight, or other action. One issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration in applying leverage to improve Taiwan's self-defense as well as to maintain peace and stability. Another issue is the role of Congress in determining security assistance, defense commitments, or policy reviews. A third issue concerns whether trends in the Taiwan Strait are stabilizing or destabilizing and how the Administration's management of policy has affected these trends. The fundamental issue is whether the United States would go to war with China and how conflict might be prevented. On May 11, the House passed H.R. 5122 (National Defense Authorization) with sections relevant to Taiwan. On June 22, the Senate passed its version, S. 2766, without similar language. On June 28, the House passed an amendment to H.R. 5672 (State appropriations) to lift restrictions on official contacts with Taiwan."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2006-06-29
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [May 5, 2006]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982 U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. […] Several policy issues are of concern to Congress for legislation, oversight, or other action. One issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration in applying leverage to improve Taiwan's self-defense as well as to maintain peace and stability. Another issue is the role of Congress in determining security assistance, defense commitments, or policy reviews. A third issue concerns whether trends in the Taiwan Strait are stabilizing or destabilizing and how the Administration's management of policy has affected these trends. The fundamental issue is whether the United States would go to war with China and how conflict might be prevented. On May 3, 2006, the House Armed Services Committee reported H.R. 5122, the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2007, after approving amendments with relevance for Taiwan that were introduced by Representative Simmons."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2006-05-05
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [March 21, 2006]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982 U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. […] Several policy issues are of concern to Congress for legislation, oversight, or other action. One issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration in applying leverage to improve Taiwan's self-defense as well as to maintain peace and stability. Another issue is the role of Congress in determining security assistance, defense commitments, or policy reviews. A third issue concerns whether trends in the Taiwan Strait are stabilizing or destabilizing and how the Administration's management of policy has affected these trends. The fundamental issue is whether the United States would go to war with China and how conflict might be prevented. In December 2005, the House agreed to the conference report on the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2006 (P.L. 109-163), after receding on two provisions that would have directed U.S. flag and general officers and senior defense officials to visit Taiwan. The Senate's bill did not have this language."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2006-03-21
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [April 26, 2006]

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  "Syria, governed by President Hafiz al-Asad from 1970 until his death in June 2000, is a prominent player in the Middle East scene. Within the region, a number of border disputes, problems of resource allocation, and political rivalries have caused frequent tensions between Syria and its neighbors. In particular, the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967, has been one of the most intractable issues in the Arab-Israeli dispute. […] On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175. This act imposes additional sanctions against Syria unless it halts support for terrorism, withdraws troops from Lebanon, ends its occupation of Lebanon, ceases development of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and ceases support for terrorist activity in Iraq. Subsequently, on May 11, 2004, the President issued Executive Order 13338 to implement the provisions of this law, and on May 5, 2005, he extended the order for another year. The Foreign Operations Appropriations Act, FY2006, signed by the President as P.L. 109-102, on November 14, 2005, repeats previous bans on U.S. aid to Syria but contains a provision authorizing at least $6,550,000 for programs to support democracy in Syria and Iran."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2006-04-26