Advanced search Help
Clear all search criteria
Only 2/3! You are seeing results from the Public Collection, not the complete Full Collection. Sign in to search everything (see eligibility).
-
Technology Innovation Program [August 17, 2011]
"The Technology Innovation Program (TIP) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was established in 2007 to replace the Advanced Technology Program (ATP). This effort is designed 'to support, promote, and accelerate innovation in the United States through highrisk, high-reward research in areas of critical national need,' according to the authorizing legislation. Grants are provided to small and medium-sized firms for individual projects or joint ventures with other research organizations. […] The elimination of ATP and the creation of TIP have renewed the debate over the role of the federal government in promoting commercial technology development. In arguing for less direct federal involvement, advocates of this approach believe that the market is superior to government in deciding technologies worthy of investment. Mechanisms that enhance the market's opportunities and abilities to make such choices are preferred. It is suggested that agency discretion in selecting one technology over another can lead to political intrusion and industry dependency. On the other hand, supporters of direct methods argue that it is important to focus on those technologies that have the greatest promise as determined by industry and supported by matching funds from the private sector. They assert that the government can serve as a catalyst for cooperation. As the Congress makes appropriation decisions, the discussion may serve to redefine thinking about governmental efforts in facilitating technological advancement in the private sector."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schacht, Wendy H.
2011-08-17
-
Tanzania: Background and Current Conditions [October 11, 2011]
"Tanzania, an important U.S. ally in Africa, is a stable and important regional actor. There has been a gradual increase in political pluralism, but Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), the ruling party, remains dominant in government and parliament. Tanzania's current president, Jakaya Kikwete, who previously served for 10 years as Tanzania's foreign minister, won 80.3% of the votes cast in the December 2005 presidential election. In October 2010, President Kikwete was reelected for a second term with 61% of the votes cast. The ruling CCM won 70% of the seats in parliament. Tanzania continues its pattern of steady real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and has a low and stable inflation rate. The Economist Intelligence Unit predicts real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of 6.3% in 2011 and 6.9% in 2012. Inflation is expected to reach 9.1% in 2011 and 8.2% in 2012."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-10-11
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated June 14, 2002]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In early June 2001, President Moi of Kenya convened a high-level Sudan talks in Nairobi, Kenya. No progress was made."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2002-06-14
-
Strategic Petroleum Reserve [Updated February 28, 2005]
"Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA, P.L. 94-163) to help prevent a repetition of the economic dislocation caused by the 1973-74 Arab oil embargo. The program is managed by the Department of Energy (DOE). Physically, the SPR comprises five underground storage facilities, hollowed out from naturally occurring salt domes, located in Texas and Louisiana. The SPR, with a capacity of 700 million barrels, currently holds 680 million barrels, and it is expected that capacity will be reached later in 2005. The price of crude oil and gasoline rose steeply during 2004, with crude exceeding $50/barrel during October in the wake of damage from Hurricane Ivan to crude oil production and pipeline delivery systems on the Gulf Coast. On September 23, 2004, the Bush Administration agreed to a request placed to the Department of Energy from refineries seeking to borrow crude oil from the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR), to be replaced within a short period of time. Other requests followed. Roughly 5.0 million barrels of SPR crude was loaned to five refiners. Under the terms of a swap, the volume of oil returned is greater than the volume borrowed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert
2005-02-28
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated December 11, 2002]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2002-12-11
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated November 1, 2002]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2002-11-01
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated May 8, 2002]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In early June 2001, President Moi of Kenya convened a high-level Sudan talks in Nairobi, Kenya. No progress was made."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2002-05-08
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated April 12, 2006]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002. On May 26, 2004, the government of Sudan and SPLA signed three protocols on Power Sharing, on the Nuba Mountains and Southern Blue Nile, and on the long disputed Abyei area. The signing of these protocols resolved all outstanding issues between the parties. On June 5, 2004, the parties signed 'the Nairobi Declaration on the Final Phase of Peace in the Sudan.' On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. The signing of the Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement effectively ended the 21-year old civil war and triggered a six-year Interim Period."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2006-04-12
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated February 24, 2006]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. In early September, the government of Sudan walked out of the Machakos talks and returned under pressure in early October 2002. On May 26, 2004, the government of Sudan and SPLA signed three protocols on Power Sharing, on the Nuba Mountains and Southern Blue Nile, and on the long disputed Abyei area. The signing of these protocols resolved all outstanding issues between the parties. On June 5, 2004, the parties signed 'the Nairobi Declaration on the Final Phase of Peace in the Sudan.' On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. The signing of the Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement effectively ended the 21-year old civil war and triggered a six-year Interim Period."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2006-02-24
-
Sudan: Humanitarian Crisis, Peace Talks, Terrorism, and U.S. Policy [Updated March 19, 2002]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for 4 decades. An estimated 2 million people have died over the past decade due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. According to the United Nations, an estimated 3 million people are in need of emergency food aid. The U.N. has appealed for $190 million for 2002. The relief operation is being coordinated by Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in 1989 in response to the 1988 humanitarian crisis in which over 200,000 people died of starvation. The OLS, a consortium of U.N. agencies and three dozen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operates in both government and rebel-controlled territories. The 19-year civil war has been and continues to be a major contributing factor to recurring humanitarian crisis. There have been many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. To that end, the heads of state from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda formed a mediation committee under the aegis of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and held the first formal negotiations in March 1994. The basis of these talks is the Declaration of Principles (DOP), which includes the right of self-determination, separation of religion and the state (secularism), and a referendum to be held in the south with secession as an option. Although the National Islamic Front (NIF) government reluctantly accepted the DOP in 1994, the government in Khartoum has repeatedly resisted secularism, walking out on peace talks in September 1994 and returning in July 1997 after a series of military defeats. In early June 2001, President Moi of Kenya convened a high-level Sudan talks in Nairobi, Kenya. No progress was made."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2002-03-19
-
Syria: Issues for the 112th Congress and Background on U.S. Sanctions [December 21, 2010]
"This report analyzes bilateral issues between the United States and Syria. With unrest spreading in Syria, this report will be updated to reflect recent developments. Despite its weak military and lackluster economy, Syria remains relevant in Middle Eastern geopolitics. Syria plays a key role in the Middle East peace process, acting at times as a 'spoiler' by sponsoring Palestinian militants and facilitating the rearmament of Hezbollah. At other times, it has participated in substantive negotiations with Israel. Syria's long-standing relationship with the Iranian clerical regime is of great concern to U.S. strategists. As Syria grew more estranged from the United States over the last ten years, Syrian-Iranian relations improved, and some analysts have called on U.S. policymakers to woo Syrian leaders away from Iran. Others believe that the Administration should go even further in pressuring the Syrian government and consider implementing harsher economic sanctions against it."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2010-12-21
-
Syria: Background and U.S. Relations [March 11, 2009]
"Despite its weak military and lackluster economy, Syria remains relevant in Middle Eastern geopolitics. The Asad regime has its hands in each of the four major active or potential zones of conflict in the region (Lebanon, Israel-Palestine, Iraq, and Iran). In the Levant, Syrian leaders aim to dominate the internal politics of Lebanon, and have been accused of involvement in the assassination of four parliamentarians and former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. The Asad regime has resisted U.S. and French attempts to bolster the pro-Western government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, believing that it can weather the storm of U.S. pressure over time. Syria also plays a key role in the Middle East peace process, acting at times as a 'spoiler' by sponsoring Palestinian militants and facilitating the rearmament of Hezbollah. [...]. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, largely because of Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175, which imposed additional economic sanctions against Syria. In recent years, the Administration has designated several Syrian entities as weapons proliferators and sanctioned several Russian companies for alleged WMD or advanced weapons sales to Syria. [...].This report analyzes an array of bilateral issues that continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2009-03-11
-
Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated May 14, 2002]
"U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2002-05-14
-
Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated March 6, 2002]
"U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2002-03-06
-
Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated April 4, 2002]
"U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2002-04-04
-
Sugar Program: The Basics [March 14, 2013]
"The sugar program provides a price guarantee to the processors of sugarcane and sugar beets, and in turn, to the producers of both crops. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) further is directed to administer the program at no budgetary cost to the federal government by limiting the amount of sugar supplied for food use in the U.S. market. To achieve both objectives, USDA uses four tools--authorized by the 2008 farm bill and longstanding trade law--to keep domestic market prices above guaranteed levels. These are: [1] price support loans at specified levels--the basis for the price guarantee, [2] marketing allotments to limit the amount of sugar that each processor can sell, [3] import quotas to restrict the amount of sugar allowed to enter the U.S. market, [4] a sugar-to-ethanol (feedstock flexibility) backstop--available if marketing allotments and import quotas fail to prevent a sugar surplus from developing (i.e., to keep market prices above guaranteed levels)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jurenas, Remy
2013-03-14
-
Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [June 3, 2011]
"This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, the U.S.-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty terminated in 1979."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kan, Shirley
2011-06-03
-
Taiwan-U.S. Relations: Developments and Policy Implications [Updated August 21, 2009]
"The changing dynamic between Taiwan and the PRC poses increasingly difficult, competing policy challenges for the United States. Along with new policy challenges -- such as what U.S. policy should be if Taiwan should continue to move closer to or even align with the PRC -- the Obama Administration will be faced with other challenges familiar from past years, including decisions on new arms sales to Taiwan, which are anathema to the PRC; how to accommodate requests for visits to the United States by President Ma and other senior Taiwan officials; the overall nature of U.S. relations with the Ma government; whether to pursue closer economic ties with Taiwan; what role, if any, Washington should play in cross-strait relations; and more broadly, what form of defense assurances to offer Taiwan. In addition, the Taiwan government also seeks to raise its international profile in other ways involving the United States. Taiwan successfully has sought to be removed from the U.S. Special 301 "Watch List" for intellectual property rights violations, and it is seeking to qualify for the U.S. Visa Waiver Program (VWP), which eliminates some visa requirements for qualified countries. The Taiwan government also continues to ask for a U.S.-Taiwan Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which would broaden the current and stalled avenue for U.S.-Taiwan trade discussions, the 1994 Trade and Investment Framework (TIFA)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dumbaugh, Kerry
2009-08-21
-
State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2010 Budget and Appropriations [July 7, 2009]
"On May 7, 2009, President Obama submitted a budget proposal for FY2010 that requests $53.9 billion for the international affairs budget, a 2% increase over the enacted FY2009 funding level, including supplementals. Within that amount, $52.04 billion was requested for programs and activities funded through the State-Foreign Operations appropriations bill. Significant increases were requested to support additional foreign service officers at USAID and the Department of State, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, food security and agricultural development, counter-terrorism and law enforcement activities, and meeting U.S. commitments to international organizations. Among programs and regions for which the Administration recommended reduced funding, compared with estimated FY2009 levels, are economic assistance to Iraq; aid to Europe, Eurasia, and Central Asia; international peacekeeping; and foreign military financing. […]. Key policy issues addressed in the Administration's request include enhancing the capacity of civilian diplomatic and development agencies, promoting U.S. leadership in multilateral development banks, and improving fiscal transparency by funding ongoing programs through the regular appropriations process rather than through supplemental appropriations. The proposal also requests funding for at least two activities--multilateral clean investment funds managed by the World Bank and the U.N. Population Fund (UNFPA)--that have been rejected by Congress in the past. This report analyzes the FY2010 request, recent-year funding trends, and congressional action for FY2010. To date, this includes the introduction and committee approval of H.R. 3081, the House State-Foreign Operations Appropriations bill for FY2010. This report will be updated to reflect congressional action as it occurs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo
2009-07-07
-
Tajikistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [July 29, 2009]
This Congressional Research Report "outlines challenges faced by Tajikistan since its five-year civil war ended in 1997. It discusses U.S. policy and assistance. Basic facts and biographical information are provided. This report may be updated. Related products include CRS Report RL33458, Central Asia: Regional Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests, updated regularly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2009-07-29
-
Strategic Petroleum Reserve [March 26, 2002]
"The SPR [Strategic Petroleum Reserve] was authorized in late 1975 in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) to protect the Nation against a repetition of the economic dislocation caused by the 1973-74 oil embargo. Congressional attention to the SPR declined during the 1990s as a number of developments intersected: (1) the need to cut federal spending; (2) declining likelihood of prolonged and crippling oil supply interruptions; (3) unregulated oil markets that appear to operate efficiently in allocating and pricing oil; (4) a consensus that the SPR was probably at an adequate level and additional fill was not justified. In early 1994, the Administration and Congress agreed to suspend further purchases for the SPR. Maintaining SPR readiness and upgrading aging infrastructure became the major priority. […] In the interim, the President approved two exchanges of crude in June 2000, authorized establishment of an interim regional 2 million barrel home heating oil reserve, and in October 2000, approved a swap of 30 million barrels from the Reserve. Bidders will return 33.54 million barrels to the SPR. S.Amdt. 2917 to comprehensive energy legislation being debated in the Senate, S. 517, would permanently authorize the SPR and require fill to its current capacity of approximately 700 million barrels. The FY2003 budget request for the SPR is for $188.8 million. This represents an increase of $9.8 million from the appropriation for FY2002. The total request includes $169.8 million operations and management of the SPR sites. An additional $11.0 million is being sought to support the costs of transporting royalty-in-kind (RIK) oil to SPR sites."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert
2002-03-26
-
Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [December 5, 2011]
"The federal government spends approximately one third of its annual research and development (R&D) budget for intramural work to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. These applications can result from technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. It is a way for the results of the federal R&D enterprise to be used to meet other national needs, including the economic growth that flows from new commercialization in the private sector; the government's requirements for products and processes to operate effectively and efficiently; and the demand for increased goods and services at the state and local level. Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, State governments are increasingly involved in the process. At issue is whether incentives for technology transfer remain necessary, if additional legislative initiatives are needed to encourage increased technology transfer, or if the responsibility to use the available resources now rests with the private sector."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schacht, Wendy H.
2011-12-05
-
Sugar Program Proposals for the 2012 Farm Bill [June 19, 2012]
"The sugar program is structured to operate at no cost to the federal government--an objective that has been achieved over the last decade primarily using two tools: marketing allotments that limit the amount that sugar processors can sell, and import quotas that restrict the quantity of foreign sugar allowed to enter the U.S. market. Since the program records no outlays, its future did not receive attention among the proposals submitted to the House and Senate Agriculture Committees for revising the farm safety net and reducing farm program spending. Producers of sugar beets and sugarcane, and the processors of these crops into sugar, favor retaining the current program without change. They highlight the jobs and economic activity created by the domestic sugar sector. Two general farm organizations and a coalition of some developing countries that benefit from selling against their shares of the U.S. sugar import quota also support continuing the current sugar program. Food manufacturing firms that use sugar in their products advocate program elimination or a transition toward a free market in sugar in the United States. In support of these changes, they point to the higher wholesale refined sugar prices paid since the 2008 farm bill provisions took effect (twice the level compared to the previous 2002 farm bill period). Consumer, trade advocacy groups, and general business organizations that favor freer trade support their position."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jurenas, Remy
2012-06-19
-
State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2012 Budget and Appropriations [August 4, 2011]
"Some in the 112th Congress view the foreign affairs budget as a place to cut funds in order to reduce the budget deficit. Foreign affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1% of the annual budget. Others, including Members of Congress of both political parties, view a robust foreign affairs budget as essential for America's national security and foreign policy interests. The State Department, Foreign Operations, and Related Agencies appropriations bills, in addition to funding U.S. diplomatic and foreign aid activities, have been the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in recent years. (Congress has not amended foreign policy issues through a complete authorization process for State Department diplomatic activities since 2003 and for foreign aid programs since 1985.) After a period of decline in the 1980s and 1990s, funding for State Department operations, international broadcasting, and foreign aid rose steadily from FY2002 to FY2010, largely because of ongoing assistance to Iraq and Afghanistan, new global health programs, and increasing assistance to Pakistan. […] It provides $45.3 billion in new budget authority for international affairs programs, as compared to the House and Senate committee-approved allocation of $54 billion the previous year. The Senate may take up the budget resolution later in the year. This report analyzes the FY2012 request, including State Department, international broadcasting, and foreign aid highlights; recent-year funding trends; and congressional action related to FY2012 State-Foreign Operations legislation. This report will be updated to reflect congressional action. For details on the FY2011 State-Foreign Operations Appropriations, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R41228, 'State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2011 Budget and Appropriations.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo
2011-08-04
-
Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the 112th Congress [October 26, 2012]
"The President and leading Members of Congress have stated that fundamental tax reform is a major policy objective for the 112th Congress. Some Members have said that fundamental tax reform is needed in order to raise a large amount of additional revenue, which is necessary to reduce high forecast budget deficits and the sharply rising national debt. Congressional interest has been expressed in both a major overhaul of the U.S. tax system and the feasibility of levying a consumption tax. Some proponents of reform argued that the tax base should be broadened by reducing or eliminating many tax expenditures. An alternative to increasing tax revenues was cutting spending. Thus, Members are faced with considering the best mix of tax increases and spending cuts in order to reduce deficits and slow the growth of the national debt. […] This report primarily covers fundamental tax reform. CRS reports are available online concerning the other three categories of tax reform: tax reform based on the elimination of the individual alternative minimum tax (AMT), proposals for reforming the corporate income tax, and proposals for reforming the U.S. taxation of international business."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bickley, James M.
2012-10-26
-
Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [December 3, 2012]
"The federal government spends approximately one-third of its annual research and development (R&D) budget for intramural work to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. These applications can result from technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. It is a way for the results of the federal R&D enterprise to be used to meet other national needs, including the economic growth that flows from new commercialization in the private sector; the government's requirements for products and processes to operate effectively and efficiently; and the demand for increased goods and services at the state and local level. Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, state governments are increasingly involved in the process. At issue is whether incentives for technology transfer remain necessary, if additional legislative initiatives are needed to encourage increased technology transfer, or if the responsibility to use the available resources now rests with the private sector."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schacht, Wendy H.
2012-12-03
-
Tax Deductions for Individuals: A Summary [December 20, 2012]
"Every tax filer has the option to claim deductions when filing their income tax return. Deductions serve four main purposes in the tax code: (1) to account for large, unusual, and necessary personal expenditures, such as extraordinary medical expenses; (2) to encourage certain types of activities, such as homeownership and charitable contributions; (3) to ease the burden of taxes paid to state and local governments; and (4) to adjust for the expenses of earning income, such as unreimbursed employee expenses. Some tax deductions can be taken by individuals even if they do not itemize. These deductions are commonly referred to as above-the-line deductions, because they reduce a tax filer's adjusted gross income (AGI, or the line). In contrast, itemized and standard deductions are referred to as below-the-line deductions, because they are applied after AGI is calculated to arrive at taxable income."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lowry, Sean
2012-12-20
-
Tax Deductions for Individuals: A Summary [January 10, 2013]
"This report provides an overview of income tax deductions for individuals. A tax deduction reduces the amount of a tax filer's income that is subject to taxation, ultimately reducing the tax filer's tax liability. Every tax filer has the option to claim deductions when filing their income tax return. However, some tax filers and policymakers may not have detailed knowledge of tax deductions, including future changes in the requirements to claim certain deductions. In addition, tax deductions may be of interest to Congress from a budgetary perspective, as some deductions are classified as tax expenditures, and result in losses in federal revenue. This report first describes what tax deductions are, how they vary in their effects on reducing taxable income, and how they differ from other provisions (e.g., exclusions or credits). Next, it discusses the rationale for deductions as part of the tax code. The final section includes tables that summarize each individual tax deduction, under current law. This report focuses on the standard treatment of tax deductions for individuals under the individual income tax code."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lowry, Sean
2013-01-10
-
STOCK Act, Insider Trading, and Public Financial Reporting by Federal Officials [December 14, 2012]
"The STOCK Act (Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act of 2012) was signed into law on April 4, 2012. It affirms and makes explicit the fact that there is no exemption from the 'insider trading' laws and regulations for Members of Congress, congressional employees, or any federal officials. The law also expressly affirms that all federal officials have a 'duty' of trust and confidentiality with respect to nonpublic, material information which they may receive in the course of their official duties, and a duty not to use such information to make a private profit."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Maskell, Jack
2012-12-14
-
Sugar Program: The Basics [December 14, 2012]
"The sugar program provides a price guarantee to the processors of sugarcane and sugar beets, and in turn, to the producers of both crops. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) further is directed to administer the program at no budgetary cost to the federal government by limiting the amount of sugar supplied for food use in the U.S. market. To achieve both objectives, USDA uses four tools--authorized by the 2008 farm bill and longstanding trade law--to keep domestic market prices above guaranteed levels. These are: [1] price support loans at specified levels--the basis for the price guarantee, [2] marketing allotments to limit the amount of sugar that each processor can sell, [3] import quotas to restrict the amount of sugar allowed to enter the U.S. market, [4] a sugar-to-ethanol (feedstock flexibility) backstop--available if marketing allotments and import quotas fail to prevent a sugar surplus from developing (i.e., to keep market prices above guaranteed levels)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jurenas, Remy
2012-12-14
