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United States and Europe: Current Issues [March 16, 2009]

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"Many observers stress that in terms of security and prosperity the United States and Europe have grown increasingly interdependent. Both sides of the Atlantic face a common set of challenges, including terrorism and transnational crime, weapons proliferation, energy security, climate change and environmental degradation, the destabilizing effects of failing and rogue states, and instability in global financial markets. Both sides are proponents of democracy, open societies, human rights, and free markets. Supporters of close U.S.-European cooperation argue that neither the United States nor Europe can adequately address such an agenda alone, and that the track record shows that the two sides can accomplish much more when they work together. […] This report discusses nine broad topics selected as key issues in U.S.-European interests and relations. It does not represent a full survey of what would be a very long list of global issues that relate to important U.S. and European interests. For example, the United States and Europe share concerns about democratization in countries like Belarus and others around the world. Both sides share concerns about stability in the Balkans, Ukraine, Georgia, the Caucasus region and central Asia. Relations with countries such as China, India, and Turkey, as well as the countries of Africa, are of great importance to both. While not every such important topic is covered in this report, the nine issues that are presented are intended to capture a broad overview of some of the highest priority items on the transatlantic agenda."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mix, Derek E.

2009-03-16
United States and Europe: Current Issues [June 20, 2011]

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"Due to extensive cooperation on a wide range of issues, the relationship between the United States and Europe is often called the transatlantic partnership. In many areas, the two sides share common values and overlapping interests, and have grown increasingly interdependent in terms of security and prosperity. The majority of Europeans warmly welcomed President Barack Obama to office, and his popularity suggested opportunities for the United States and Europe to address the common set of global challenges they face. In dealing with this difficult agenda, however, observers note that the constructive tone of the relationship does not necessarily translate into tangible foreign policy results. Overall, transatlantic cooperation is strong on many key issues, but some concerns and points of tension also persist. As the United States and Europe deal with changing geopolitical realities, some new anxieties are surfacing about the future of the transatlantic partnership."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mix, Derek E.

2011-06-20
United States and Europe: Current Issues [December 8, 2010]

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"Due to extensive cooperation on a wide range of issues, the relationship between the United States and Europe is often called the transatlantic partnership. In many areas, the two sides share common values and overlapping interests, and have grown increasingly interdependent in terms of security and prosperity. The majority of Europeans warmly welcomed President Barack Obama to office, and his popularity suggested opportunities for the United States and Europe to address the common set of global challenges they face. In dealing with this difficult agenda, however, observers note that the constructive tone of the relationship does not necessarily translate into tangible foreign policy results. Overall, transatlantic cooperation is strong on many key issues, but some concerns and points of tension also persist. As the United States and Europe deal with changing geopolitical realities, some new anxieties are surfacing about the future of the transatlantic partnership."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mix, Derek E.

2010-12-08
U.S. International Trade: Trends and Forecasts [Updated September 5, 2008]

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"This report provides an overview of the current status, trends, and forecasts for U.S. international trade. The purpose of this report is to provide current data and brief explanations for the various types of trade flows, particularly U.S. exports, along with a short discussion of particular trends and points of contention related to trade policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Donnelly, J. Michael

2008-09-05
U.S. International Trade: Trends and Forecasts [Updated May 30, 2008]

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"This report provides an overview of the current status, trends, and forecasts for U.S. international trade. The purpose of this report is to provide current data and brief explanations for the various types of trade flows, particularly U.S. exports, along with a short discussion of particular trends and points of contention related to trade policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Donnelly, J. Michael

2008-05-30
U.S.-Russian Civilian Nuclear Cooperation Agreement: Issues for Congress [Updated June 9, 2008]

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"The United States and Russia signed a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement on May 6, 2008. President Bush submitted the agreement to Congress on May 13. This report discusses key policy issues related to that agreement, including future nuclear energy cooperation with Russia, U.S.-Russian bilateral relations, nonproliferation cooperation and Russia's policies toward Iran. This report will be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service; Tearfund

Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2008-06-09
U.S. Direct Investment Abroad: Trends and Current Issues [Updated August 15, 2008]

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"The United States is the largest investor abroad and the largest recipient of direct investment in the world. For some Americans, the national gains attributed to investing overseas are offset by such perceived losses as displaced U.S. workers and lower wages. Some observers believe U.S. firms invest abroad to avoid U.S. labor unions or high U.S. wages, however, 70% of U.S. foreign direct investment is concentrated in high income developed countries. Even more striking is the fact that the share of investment going to developing countries has fallen in recent years. Most economists conclude that direct investment abroad does not lead to fewer jobs or lower incomes overall for Americans and that the majority of jobs lost among U.S. manufacturing firms over the past decade reflect a broad restructuring of U.S. manufacturing industries. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2008-08-15
U.S. Farm Economy [Updated April 17, 2008]

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"According to USDA's Economic Research Service (ERS), national net farm income -- a key indicator of U.S. farm well-being -- is expected to rise to a record $92.3 billion in 2008, over 4% above the previous year's record ($88.7 billion) on the strength of higher commodity prices, which are being driven by the outlook for continued strong domestic and international demand and sharply lower stocks for major grains and oilseeds.1 Consequently, the outlook for the U.S. farm economy as a whole is for another year of record profitability as projected record agricultural cash receipts of $313.2 billion (up $28 billion or 10%) more than offset record high production expenses of $279.2 billion. Government payments are projected up over 11% in 2008 at $13.7 billion. An increase in ad hoc and emergency program payments are expected to more than offset sharp declines in commodity program payments due to the projected rise in crop prices which, in turn, are expected to reduce price-triggered marketing loan benefits and counter-cyclical payments. Total farm asset value of $2,514 billion and total farm debt of $228 billion are both projected at record levels in 2007. However, the debt-to-asset ratio of 9.1% is down sharply from last year's value of 9.9% and represents the lowest level since 1960, suggesting a strong financial position for the agricultural sector as a whole. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-

2008-04-17
U.S. Periods of War [Updated August 19, 2008]

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"Many wars or conflicts in U.S. history have federally designated 'periods of war,' dates marking their beginning and ending. These dates are important for qualification for certain veterans' pension or disability benefits. Confusion can occur because beginning and ending dates for 'periods of war' in many nonofficial sources are often different from those given in treaties and other official sources of information, and armistice dates can be confused with termination dates. This report lists the beginning and ending dates for 'periods of war' found in Title 38 of the 'Code of Federal Regulations', dealing with the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). It also lists and differentiates other beginning dates given in declarations of war, as well as termination of hostilities' dates and armistice and ending dates given in proclamations, laws, or treaties. This report will be updated when events warrant. For additional information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31133, 'Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications.'"

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Torreon, Barbara Salazar

2008-08-19
U.S. Embassy in Iraq [Updated August 8, 2008]

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"Construction of the New Embassy Compound (NEC) in Baghdad is completed and, as of early August 2008, about 50% of post staff have moved in. Construction problems and additional requirements, including adding space at the embassy compound for General Patraeus and his staff, as requested in a mid-2007 report by State's then- Director of Management and Planning, delayed the opening by a year and raised the cost from the original $592 million estimate to about $736 million. The Department of State has a goal of having all U.S. government personnel moved in by the end of 2008. This report will be not be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Epstein, Susan B.

2008-08-08
U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Rising Oil Prices [Updated August 12, 2008]

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"Petroleum prices have continued to rise sharply in 2008, at one time reaching more than $140 per barrel of crude oil. At the same time the average monthly volume of imports of energy-related petroleum products has fallen slightly. The combination of sharply rising prices and a slightly lower level of imports of energy-related petroleum products translates into an escalating cost for those imports. This rising cost added an estimated $50 billion to the nation's trade deficit in 2006 and another $28 billion in 2007. The prices of energy imports have been on a steady rise since summer of 2007, defying the pattern of declining energy import prices in the fall. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the rising oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit. This report will be updated as warranted by events."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2008-08-12
U.S.-Taiwan Relationship: Overview of Policy Issues [May 8, 2013]

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"The purpose and scope of this CRS [Congressional Research Service] report is to provide a succinct overview with analysis of the issues in the U.S.-Taiwan relationship. This report will be updated as warranted. Taiwan formally calls itself the sovereign Republic of China (ROC), tracing its political lineage to the ROC set up after the revolution in 1911 in China. The ROC government retreated to Taipei in 1949. The United States recognized the ROC until the end of 1978 and has maintained a non-diplomatic relationship with Taiwan after recognition of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing in 1979. The State Department claims an 'unofficial' U.S. relationship with Taiwan, despite official contacts that include arms sales. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) of 1979, P.L. [Public Law] 96-8, has governed policy in the absence of a diplomatic relationship or a defense treaty. Other key statements that guide policy are the three U.S.-PRC Joint Communiqués of 1972, 1979, and 1982; as well as the 'Six Assurances' of 1982."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kan, Shirley; Morrison, Wayne M.

2013-05-08
U.S.-Panama Free Trade Agreement [October 27, 2011]

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"On June 28, 2007, the United States and Panama signed a reciprocal free trade agreement (FTA). Negotiations were formally concluded on December 16, 2006, with an understanding that further changes to labor, environment, investment, and intellectual property rights (IPR) chapters would be made pursuant to future detailed congressional input. These changes were agreed to in late June 2007, in time for the FTA to be considered under Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) legislation before it expired on July 1, 2007. [...] The final text of the U.S.-Panama FTA incorporates changes based on the bipartisan agreement of May 10, 2007, crafted by the Bush Administration and leadership in the 110th Congress. These include adoption of enforceable labor standards, compulsory membership in multilateral environmental agreements, and an easing of restrictions on developing country access to generic drugs, provisions that go beyond those in previous U.S. bilateral FTAs and multilateral trade rules. Concerns raised in Congress on labor and tax transparency issues have also been addressed by Panama in statute and by ratification of a Tax Information and Exchange Agreement (TIEA) with the United States. The TIEA provides greater tax transparency in support of curbing illicit financial transactions associated with money laundering activities."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)

2011-10-27
U.S.-South Korea Relations [October 11, 2011]

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"Since late 2008, relations between the United States and South Korea (known officially as the Republic of Korea, or ROK) have been arguably at their best state in decades. By the middle of 2010, in the view of many in the Obama Administration, South Korea had emerged as the United States' closest ally in East Asia. Of all the issues on the bilateral agenda, Congress has the most direct role to play in the proposed Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA). [...] The United States maintains about 28,500 troops in the ROK. Since 2009, the two sides have accelerated steps to transform the U.S.-ROK alliance's primary purpose from one of defending against a North Korean attack to a regional and even global partnership. Washington and Seoul have announced a 'Strategic Alliance 2015' plan to relocate U.S. troops on the Peninsula and boost ROK defense capabilities. Some Members of Congress have criticized the relocation plans. Much of the current closeness between Seoul and Washington is due to President Lee. It is unclear how sustainable many of his policies will be, particularly into 2012, when South Koreans will elect a new president and a new legislature. Bilateral coordination will be particularly tested if South Korea's left-of-center groups, which bitterly oppose much of Lee's agenda, retake the presidency and/or the National Assembly. This report will be updated periodically."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.; Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2011-10-11
U.S.-South Korea Relations [October 4, 2011]

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"Since late 2008, relations between the United States and South Korea (known officially as the Republic of Korea, or ROK) have been arguably at their best state in decades. By the middle of 2010, in the view of many in the Obama Administration, South Korea had emerged as the United States' closest ally in East Asia. Of all the issues on the bilateral agenda, Congress has the most direct role to play in the proposed Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA). Congressional approval is necessary for the agreement to go into effect. On October 3, 2011, President Obama submitted draft legislation (H.R. 3080/S. 1642) to implement the FTA. This moves has been expected since early December 2010, when the two sides announced they had agreed on modifications to the original agreement, which was signed in 2007. South Korea accepted a range of U.S. demands designed to help the U.S. auto industry and received some concessions in return. In the United States, the supplementary deal appears to have changed the minds of many groups and Members of Congress who previously had opposed the FTA. If Congress approves the agreement, it would be the United States' second-largest FTA, after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). [...] The United States maintains about 28,500 troops in the ROK. Since 2009, the two sides have accelerated steps to transform the U.S.-ROK alliance's primary purpose from one of defending against a North Korean attack to a regional and even global partnership. Washington and Seoul have announced a 'Strategic Alliance 2015' plan to relocate U.S. troops on the Peninsula and boost ROK defense capabilities. Some Members of Congress have criticized the relocation plans."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Manyin, Mark E.

2011-10-04
U.S. International Trade: Trends and Forecasts [September 6, 2011]

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"The global financial crisis, now officially dated to the 19 months from December 2007 through June 2009, caused the U.S. trade deficit to decrease from August 2008 through May 2009, but since then it has begun to increase again as recovery has slowly progressed. The financial crisis caused U.S. imports to drop faster than U.S. exports, but that has been reversed as U.S. demand for imports have recovered. [...] Trade deficits are a concern for Congress because they may generate trade friction and pressures for the government to do more to open foreign markets, to shield U.S. producers from foreign competition, or to assist U.S. industries to become more competitive. Overall U.S. trade deficits reflect excess spending (a shortage of savings) in the domestic economy and a reliance on capital imports to finance that shortfall. Capital inflows serve to offset the outflow of dollars used to pay for imports. Movements in the exchange rate help to balance trade. A rising trade deficit (when not matched by capital inflows) places downward pressure on the value of the dollar, which, in turn, helps to shrink the deficit by making U.S. exports cheaper and imports more expensive. Central banks in countries such as China, however, have intervened in foreign exchange markets to keep the value of their currencies from rising too fast. [...] The trade agenda of the 112th Congress centers on three Free Trade Agreements awaiting congressional action and trade with China. Selected Legislation: S. 380, S. 433/H.R. 913, S. 308, S. 328/H.R. 639, H.R. 1655, H.R. 29, H.R. 516, H.R. 554, H.R. 833, S. 98, S. 708."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Donnelly, J. Michael; Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki

2011-09-06
U.S. Assistance Programs in China [May 9, 2013]

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"This report examines U.S. foreign assistance activities in the People's Republic of China (PRC), particularly U.S. Department of State and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) programming, foreign operations appropriations, policy history, and legislative background. International programs supported by U.S. departments and agencies other than the Department of State and USAID are not covered in this report. U.S. foreign assistance efforts in the PRC aim to promote human rights, democracy, the rule of law, and environmental conservation in China (including Tibet) and to support Tibetan livelihoods and culture. The United States Congress has played a leading role in determining program priorities and funding levels for these objectives. Congressionally mandated rule of law, civil society, public participation, and related programs together constitute an important component of U.S. human rights policy toward China. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the United States is the largest provider of 'government and civil society' programming among major bilateral foreign aid donors in China."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-

2013-05-09
U.S. Agricultural Trade: Trends, Composition, Direction, and Policy [July 29, 2011]

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"U.S. agricultural exports, imports, and the agricultural trade surplus are expected by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to reach record levels in FY2011. FY2011 U.S. farm exports are forecast by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to reach $137 billion, while agricultural imports are expected to reach $93 billion. The agricultural trade surplus is projected to be $44 billion. Exports of high-value products (e.g., fruits, vegetables, meats, wine and beer) have increased since the early 1990s and now account for 60% of total U.S. agricultural exports. Exports of bulk commodities (e.g., soybeans, wheat, and feed grains) remain significant. [...] Most U.S. agricultural imports are high-value products, including fruits, nuts, vegetables, wine, and beer. The biggest import suppliers are NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement] partners Canada and Mexico, and the EU. Together these three are forecast to provide more than 50% of total U.S. agricultural imports in FY2011. Brazil, Australia, Indonesia, New Zealand, and Colombia are also important suppliers of agricultural imports to the United States. According to estimates by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the United States provides the third-lowest amount of government policy-generated support to its agricultural sector among OECD countries. The United States' average applied tariff for agricultural products is estimated by the World Trade Organization to be 8.9%, a little more than twice the average applied tariff for non-agricultural products. Export subsidies, export credit guarantees, and market development programs are among the programs used by the United States to promote U.S. agricultural exports. The United States also provides U.S. agricultural commodities to developing countries as food aid for emergency relief or use in nonemergency development activities."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Hanrahan, Charles; Canada, Carol; Banks, Beverly A.

2011-07-29
U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [March 9, 2009]

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"Four major principles underlie current U.S. policy on permanent immigration: the reunification of families, the admission of immigrants with needed skills, the protection of refugees, and the diversity of admissions by country of origin. These principles are embodied in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). The INA specifies a complex set of numerical limits and preference categories that give priorities for permanent immigration reflecting these principles. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) refer to foreign nationals who live permanently in the United States. [...] Even as U.S. unemployment levels rise, employers assert that they continue to need the 'best and the brightest' workers, regardless of their country of birth, to remain competitive in a worldwide market and to keep their firms in the United States. While support for the option of increasing employment based immigration may be dampened by the economic recession, proponents argue it is an essential ingredient for economic growth. Proponents of family-based migration alternatively point to the significant backlogs in family based immigration due to the sheer volume of aliens eligible to immigrate to the United States and maintain that any proposal to increase immigration levels should also include the option of family-based backlog reduction. Citizens and LPRs often wait years for their relatives' petitions to be processed and visa numbers to become available. Against these competing priorities for increased immigration are those who offer options to scale back immigration levels, with options ranging from limiting family-based LPRs to the immediate relatives of U.S. citizens to confining employment-based LPRs exceptional, extraordinary, or outstanding individuals."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2009-03-09
U.S.-Mexico Economic Relations: Trends, Issues, and Implications [April 3 2009]

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"This report provides an overview of U.S.-Mexico economic trends, background information on the Mexican economy, the effects of NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement] on the U.S.-Mexico economic relationship, and major trade issues between the United States and Mexico. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Villarreal, M. Angeles; Flynn, Paul J.

2009-04-03
War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [February 2, 2009]

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"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution (WPR). The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This report does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with congressional authorization for military action, and the application and effectiveness of the WPR. The purpose of the WPR (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the United States involved in hostilities. Compliance becomes an issue whenever the President introduces U.S. forces abroad in situations that might be construed as hostilities or imminent hostilities. Criteria for compliance include prior consultation with Congress, fulfillment of the reporting requirements, and congressional authorization. If the President has not complied fully, the issue becomes what action Congress should take to bring about compliance or to influence U.S. policy. A related issue has been congressional authorization of U.N. peacekeeping or other U.N.-sponsored actions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Labonte, Marc

2009-02-04
U.S. Secret Service: An Examination and Analysis of Its Evolving Missions [March 24, 2009]

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"In March 2003, the U.S. Secret Service was transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of Homeland Security as a distinct entity. Prior to enactment of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296), the U.S. Secret Service had been part of the Treasury Department for over 100 years. During an April 2008 hearing on the FY2009 budget request for the U.S. Secret Service, Members of Congress raised questions related to the missions and organizational location of the Service. Are the two missions of the Service compatible and how should they be prioritized? Is the Department of Homeland Security the most appropriate organizational and administrative location for the Secret Service? These, and other policy questions, have been raised and addressed at different times by Congress and various administrations during the long history of the Service. Additionally, there has been increased interest in the Service due to the recent inaugural security operations and the protection of President Barack Obama. Some may contend that these and other questions call for renewed attention given the recent increase in demand for the Service's protection function (for example, see P.L. 110-326 enacted by the 110th Congress) and the advent of new technology used in financial crimes."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Reese, Shawn; Corcoran, David

2009-03-24
U.S. Security Assistance to Lebanon [April 1, 2009]

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"Since 2005, the United States has provided nearly $500 million in security assistance to the government of Lebanon to increase the capacity of its various security forces to combat terrorism and secure Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling to Hezbollah and other armed groups. The recent increase in U.S. security assistance to Lebanon is an extension of a long-standing commitment on the part of the United States to foster a friendly and independent Lebanese government. The Lebanese civil war (1975-1990) was punctuated by targeted bombings against U.S. and Western interests and kidnappings of U.S. and Western civilians in Lebanon. At times, the violence threatened to spill over into adjacent areas of the Middle East, demonstrating the dangers to U.S. interests posed by instability in this small country. [...] As Lebanon approaches parliamentary elections, scheduled for June 7, 2009, attention has focused on the future of U.S. policy toward Lebanon and, in particular, the viability of U.S. security assistance as a tool of that policy. This report discusses the variety of current U.S. security assistance programs to Lebanon including objectives, vetting processes, end-use monitoring, and issues for Congress. The last section of this report discusses the upcoming elections and the future of U.S. security assistance to Lebanon. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R40054, 'Lebanon: Background and U.S. Relations', by Casey L. Addis."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Addis, Casey L.

2009-04-01
U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [March 24, 2009]

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"Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. The merits of cross-border raids and possible equipment and logistical support shortfalls are potential policy issues for congressional consideration. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew

2009-03-24
U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians [January 30, 2009]

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"U.S. aid to the Palestinians has fluctuated considerably over the past three years, largely due to Hamas's changing role within the Palestinian Authority (PA). After Hamas led the PA government for over a year, its forcible takeover of the Gaza Strip in June 2007 led to the creation of a non- Hamas government in the West Bank--resulting in different models of governance for the two Palestinian territories. Since then, the U.S. has dramatically boosted aid levels to bolster the PA and President Mahmoud Abbas vis-à-vis Hamas. In FY2008, Congress appropriated a total of $414.5 million in bilateral assistance to the Palestinians, the largest single year appropriation ever for the Palestinians. Because of congressional concerns that, among other things, U.S. funds might be diverted to Palestinian terrorist groups, much of this assistance is subject to legislative restrictions. For FY2009, an additional $200 million have already been appropriated for the Palestinians (with another $100 million requested by the Bush Administration). Experts advise that PA stability hinges on, now more than ever, improved security, economic development, Israeli cooperation, and the continuation of high levels of foreign assistance. U.S. contributions were made to assist emergency humanitarian efforts in the Gaza Strip during the 2008-2009 Israel-Hamas conflict, and U.S. policymakers have also spoken of possible U.S. participation in international efforts to help with the post-conflict reconstruction of Gaza--subject to finding an acceptable approach vis-à-vis Hamas. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Zanotti, Jim

2009-01-30
U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Rising Oil Prices [December 12, 2008]

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"Petroleum prices rose sharply in the first half of 2008, at one time reaching more than $140 per barrel of crude oil. Since July, however, petroleum prices and import volumes have fallen at a historically rapid pace; in November, prices of crude oil fell below $55 per barrel. At the same time the average monthly volume of imports of energy-related petroleum products fell slightly. The sharp rise in the cost of energy imports added an estimated $50 billion to the nation's trade deficit in 2006 and another $28 billion in 2007. The fall in the cost of energy imports combined with the drop in import volumes as a result of the slowdown in economic activity has reversed the trend of rising energy imports costs and will sharply reduce the overall costs of U.S. energy imports for the rest of 2008. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the rising oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit. This report will be updated as warranted by events."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2008-12-12
U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [Updated May 21, 2007]

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"When President George W. Bush announced his principles for immigration reform in January 2004, he included an increase in permanent immigration as a key component. President Bush has stated that immigration reform is a top priority of his second term and has prompted a lively debate on the issue. Of an array of bills to revise permanent admissions introduced, only one was enacted in the 109th Congress: A provision in P.L. 109-13 (H.R. 1268, the emergency FY2005 supplemental appropriation) makes up to 50,000 employment-based visas available for foreign nationals coming to work as medical professionals. There is a widely held expectation that the 110th Congress will consider immigration reform. [...] Four major principles underlie current U.S. policy on permanent immigration: the reunification of families, the admission of immigrants with needed skills, the protection of refugees, and the diversity of admissions by country of origin. These principles are embodied in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). The INA specifies a complex set of numerical limits and preference categories that give priorities for permanent immigration reflecting these principles. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) refer to foreign nationals who live lawfully and permanently in the United States. [...] Significant backlogs are due to the sheer volume of aliens eligible to immigrate to the United States. Citizens and LPRs first file petitions for their relatives. After the petitions are processed, these relatives then wait for a visa to become available through the numerically limited categories. The siblings of U.S. citizens are waiting 11 years. Prospective LPRs from the Philippines have the most substantial waiting times; consular officers are now considering the petitions of the brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens from the Philippines who filed more than 22 years ago."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2007-05-21
U.S. Trade Policy and the Caribbean: From Trade Preferences to Free Trade Agreements [April 4, 2007]

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"A number of issues and circumstances are converging during the 110th Congress that will be a challenge for U.S. trade policy in the Caribbean region. Among these circumstances are the expiring trade preference programs, their limited use by remaining eligible countries, and the reluctance of these countries to make the transition to an FTA [Free Trade Agreement] with the United States without some guarantee of a 'development component' to the agreement. These concerns persist, despite the promise of permanent market access and increased investment that an FTA holds out. The Caribbean countries, long accustomed to dependent economic relationships, appear content to take a cautious and leisurely path toward any new arrangement with the United States. For U.S. trade policy, which is still committed to achieving regional integration, these circumstances present a special challenge. Broader integration may be difficult to reconcile with the needs of very small developing countries, which are highly vulnerable to the vicissitudes of global economic trends and may require new and creative solutions, particularly if U.S. policy is still driven by the historical focus on development and regional security issues in addition to trade liberalization. In the context of continuing with trade preferences in similar or altered form, or opting for an FTA, the solution is not immediately obvious. This report will be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Ewing, Walter A.

2007-04-04
U.S.-China Relations: Policy Issues [March 11, 2011]

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"The 112th Congress faces important questions about what sort of relationship the United States should have with China and how the United States should respond to China's 'rise.' After 30 years of fast-paced economic growth, China's economy is now the second largest in the world after the United States. China is driving global economic growth and has become an Asian economic hub. With economic success, China has developed significant global strategic clout. It is also engaged in an ambitious military modernization drive, including efforts to develop extended-range power projection capabilities and such advanced weapons as a stealth bomber. It continues to suppress all perceived challenges to the Communist Party's monopoly on power. [...] The first part of this report provides an overview of the U.S.-China relationship and Obama Administration policy toward China. A summary of major policy issues in the relationship follows, beginning with security issues and Taiwan, and continuing with economic issues, climate change and clean energy cooperation, and human rights. The report includes five appendices. Appendix A provides a chronology of meetings between the U.S. and Chinese presidents and information about select bilateral dialogues. Appendix B analyzes the Joint Statement issued during President Hu's January 2011 state visit. Appendix C lists congressionally mandated annual reports related to China. Appendices D and E list China-related legislation introduced in the 112th and 111th Congresses. Throughout, this report directs the reader to other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports for more detailed information about individual topics."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Lawrence, Susan V.

2011-03-11
U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues [March 10, 2011]

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"During discussions about the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review, Congress reviewed and discussed the plans for maintaining and modernizing U.S. strategic nuclear forces. Although the United States plans to reduce the number of warheads deployed on its long-range missiles and bombers, consistent with the terms of the New START [Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty] Treaty, it also plans to develop new delivery systems for deployment over the next 20-30 years. As a result, the 112th Congress will continue to review these programs during the annual authorization and appropriations process. [...] The Obama Administration recently completed a review of the size and structure of the U.S. nuclear force as a part of the congressionally mandated Nuclear Posture Review. It has also recently signed a New START Treaty with Russia that will limit the number of deployed missiles and warheads in the U.S. strategic force. Congress will review the Administration's plans for U.S. strategic nuclear forces during the annual authorization and appropriations process, and if it assesses the terms of a prospective nuclear arms control treaty with Russia. This report will be updated as needed."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Woolf, Amy F.

2011-03-10

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