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Sudan: The Crisis in Darfur and Status of the North-South Peace Agreement [June 15, 2011]
"Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. More than 2 million people have died in Southern Sudan over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the SPLM signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. In April 2010, Sudan held national and regional elections. In January 2011, South Sudan held a referendum to decide on unity or independence. Abyei was also expected to hold a referendum in January 2011 to decide whether to retain the current special administrative status or to be part of South Sudan. The Abyei referendum did not take place. In the Southern referendum, 98.8% voted for independence and 1.17% for unity. In late May 2011, Sudan government forces dissolved the joint Abyei Administration and invaded the town, displacing more than 100,000 people in the Abyei area. […] In late October 2009, the Obama Administration announced a new Sudan policy. The policy focuses on three policy priorities: the crisis in Darfur, the implementation of the North-South peace agreement, and counter-terrorism. The new policy links the lifting of sanctions and incentives to verifiable progress on the ground. In mid-September, the Obama Administration announced new policy initiatives on Sudan. The new policy update focuses on the Administration's active and expanded diplomatic engagement and relaxation of sanctions and restrictions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-06-15
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Strategic Arms Control After START: Issues and Options [December 23, 2008]
This CRS report discusses the issues involved with either extending or replacing START, as well as possible options. "The United States and Soviet Union signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty in 1991; it entered into force in December 1994 and is due to expire in December 2009. The United States and Russia have held several meetings to discuss options for continuing their arms control relationship, but have not agreed on whether to extend START or how to replace it. […] To verify compliance with START, each side monitors the numbers and locations of ballistic missiles, launchers and heavy bombers deployed by the other country. […] They also have also been required to exchange copious amounts of data on locations, operations, and technical characteristics of the treaty-limited items. This verification regime has allowed the parties to remain confident in each other's compliance with the Treaty. The United States and Russia began to discuss their options for arms control after START expired in mid-2006. They have, however been unable to agree on a path forward. […] In December 2008, the two sides agreed that they wanted to replace START before it expired, but acknowledged that this task would have to be left to negotiations between Russia and the Obama Administration. The United States and Russia could choose from a number of options for the future of their arms control relationship."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2008-12-23
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Sudan: The Crisis in Darfur and Status of the North-South Peace Agreement [Updated July 23, 2008]
This CRS report discusses the crisis in Darfur (Sudan) as well as the status of the peace agreement negotiated between the northern and southern parts of the country. "Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. More than 2 million people have died in Southern Sudan over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. There were many failed attempts to end the civil war in southern Sudan, including efforts by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, former President Jimmy Carter, and the United States. In July 2002, the Sudan government and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) signed a peace framework agreement in Kenya. On May 26, 2004, the government of Sudan and the SPLM signed three protocols on Power Sharing, on the Nuba Mountains and Southern Blue Nile, and on the long disputed Abyei area. The signing of these protocols resolved all outstanding issues between the parties. On June 5, 2004, the parties signed 'the Nairobi Declaration on the Final Phase of Peace in the Sudan.' On January 9, 2005, the government of Sudan and the SPLM signed the final peace agreement at a ceremony held in Nairobi, Kenya. In October 2007, the government of Southern Sudan suspended the participation of its Ministers, State Ministers, and Presidential Advisors from the Government of National Unity to protest measures taken by the National Congress Party and to demand full implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA). In response to these demands and unexpected developments, President Bashir reportedly accepted a number of the government of South Sudan (GoSS) demands in late October, except those related to the Abyei issue."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2008-07-23
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve: History, Perspectives, and Issues [Updated January 7, 2009]
This CRS Report provides an updated overview of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve [SPR]. First of all, the report discusses the history of the SPR and how it was established in 1973. Secondly, the report discusses the history of acquiring Crude Oil for the SPR. The third part of the report discusses "The Drawdown Authorities," which are authorized by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. The report also addresses the long-standing debate over when the SPR should be used. "Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA, P.L. 94-163) to help prevent a repetition of the economic dislocation caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. The program is managed by the Department of Energy (DOE). The capacity of the SPR is 727 million barrels, and it currently holds around 702 million barrels of crude oil. In addition, a Northeast Heating Oil Reserve (NHOR) holds 2 million barrels of heating oil in above-ground storage."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert
2009-01-07
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve: History, Perspectives, and Issues [Updated July 29, 2008]
This CRS report provides an updated overview of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve [SPR]. First of all, the report discusses the history of the SPR and how it was established in 1973. After this, the report discusses the history of acquiring Crude Oil for the SPR. The third part of the report discusses "The Drawdown Authorities," which are authorized by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. The report also address the long-standing debate over when the SPR should be used. "Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act [EPCA, P.L. 94-163] to help prevent a repetition of the economic dislocation caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. The program is managed by the Department of Energy [DOE]. The capacity of the SPR is 727 million barrels, and it currently holds around 704 million barrels of crude oil. In addition, a Northeast Heating Oil Reserve [NHOR] holds 2 million barrels of heating oil in above-ground storage. At issue in recent years has been whether SPR capacity should be expanded and whether the reserve should continue to be filled."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert
2008-07-29
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Stability in Russia's Chechnya and Other Regions of the North Caucasus: Recent Developments [August 12, 2008]
This CRS report examines the recent developments that have occurred in the region known as the North Caucuses. The main focus is on the areas of Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan. The report also looks at the causes for instability in the region and the "Implications for Russia" as well as the "implications for U.S. Interests." Furthermore, "in recent years, there have not been major terrorist attacks in Russia's North Caucasus -- a border area between the Black and Caspian Seas that includes the formerly breakaway Chechnya and other ethnic-based regions. This record, in part, might be attributed to government tactics. For instance, the Russian Interior [police] Ministry reported that its troops had conducted over 850 sweep operations ['zachistki'] in 2007 in the North Caucasus, in which they surround a village and search every house, ostensibly in a bid to apprehend terrorists. Critics of the operations allege that the troops frequently engage in pillaging and gratuitous violence and are responsible for kidnapings for ransom and 'disappearances' of civilians. [...] The Bush Administration generally has supported the Russian government's efforts to combat terrorism in the North Caucasus. However, the Administration and Congress also have continued to raise concerns about the wide scope of human rights abuses committed by the Russian government in the North Caucasus. "
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2008-08-12
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [Updated September 10, 2008]
This is an updated report from the Congressional Research Service on the SAFER Grant Program. "In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act -- popularly called the 'SAFER Act' -- was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for activities related to the recruitment and retention of volunteers. […] To date, the Bush Administration has requested zero funding for SAFER in all years of the program's existence. […] The FY2009 budget justification stated that the federal government already spends 'billions of dollars in annual support to train, exercise, and equip state and local public safety personnel, including firefighters, so that they are adequately prepared to respond to a terrorist attack or other major incident.' […]Facing the 110th Congress is the issue of whether or not -- and if so, to what extent -- the SAFER program should be funded. The Administration has consistently requested no funding for SAFER, arguing that localities should be solely responsible for funding firefighting personnel. Fire service advocates counter that the inability of many local fire departments to meet minimum standards for personnel levels could lead to inadequate response to different types of emergency incidents, substandard response times, and an increased risk of firefighter fatalities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2008-09-10
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [June 25, 2008]
"In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act -- popularly called the "SAFER Act" -- was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for activities related to the recruitment and retention of volunteers. The SAFER grant program is authorized through FY2010. Although authorized for FY2004, the SAFER grant program received its initial appropriation of $65 million in FY2005, followed by $109 million in FY2006, and $115 million in FY2007. The FY2007 Department of Homeland Security appropriations bill (P.L. 109-295) transferred both SAFER and fire grants back to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). To date, the Bush Administration has requested zero funding for SAFER in all years of the program's existence. The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-161) provided $190 million for SAFER grants."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2008-06-25
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Tax Gap: Should the 3% Withholding Requirement on Payments to Contractors by Government Be Repealed? [December 16, 2011]
"The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) defines the gross tax gap as the difference between the aggregate tax liability imposed by law for a given tax year and the amount of tax that taxpayers pay voluntarily and timely for that year. It defines the net tax gap as the amount of the gross tax gap that remains unpaid after all enforced and other late payments are made for the tax year. On January 27, 2005, the Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) published a report titled Options to Improve Tax Compliance and Reform Tax Expenditures. The JCT report identified many options, including several to increase withholding. The first option was titled 'Impose Withholding on Certain Payments Made by Government Entities.' The JCT argued that the IRS had extensively and successfully used withholding and information reporting to improve tax compliance. Furthermore, much empirical data supported the use of withholding and information reporting to reduce the tax gap. On May 17, 2006, President George W. Bush signed the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-222), which included Section 511: 'Imposition of Withholding on Certain Payments Made by Government Entities' (the JCT option). This section required 3% withholding on payments for goods and services to contractors made by all branches of the federal government and its agencies and all units of state and local governments, including counties and parishes. Local governments with less than $100 million of annual expenditures were excluded from the withholding requirement. The section also imposed information reporting requirements on payments that are subject to withholding. This section was a revenue offset and was scheduled to take effect on January 1, 2011."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bickley, James M.
2011-12-16
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [January 3, 2012]
"In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act--popularly called the 'SAFER Act'--was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry-minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for recruitment and retention of volunteers. With the economic turndown adversely affecting budgets of local governments, concerns have arisen that modifications to the SAFER statute may be necessary to enable fire departments to more effectively participate in the program. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5) included a provision (§603) that waived the matching requirements for SAFER grants awarded in FY2009 and FY2010. The FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111- 32) included a provision authorizing the Secretary of Homeland Security to waive further limitations and restrictions in the SAFER statute for FY2009 and FY2010."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2012-01-03
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [February 14, 2012]
This report for Congress provides updated information on the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency (SAFER) Response Program. "In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act--popularly called the 'SAFER Act'--was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry-minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. […] With the economic turndown adversely affecting budgets of local governments, concerns have arisen that modifications to the SAFER statute may be necessary to enable fire departments to more effectively participate in the program. […] Concern over local fire departments' budgetary problems has framed debate over the SAFER reauthorization, which is included in S. 550/H.R. 2269, the Fire Grants Authorization Act of 2011. Previously in the 111th Congress, reauthorization legislation for SAFER was passed by the House, but was not passed by the Senate. As part of the reauthorization debate, Congress may consider whether some SAFER rules and restrictions governing the hiring grants should be eliminated or altered in order to make it economically feasible for more fire departments to participate in the program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2012-02-14
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [September 15, 2011]
"In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act-popularly called the 'SAFER Act'-was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry-minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for recruitment and retention of volunteers. [] The Department of Defense and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10) funded SAFER at $405 million. The law also contained language that removes cost-share requirements and allows SAFER grants to be used to rehire laid-off firefighters and fill positions eliminated through attrition. However, P.L. 112-10 did not remove the requirement that SAFER grants fund a firefighter position for four years, with the fifth year funded wholly by the grant recipient. The law also did not waive the cap of $100,000 per firefighter hired by a SAFER grant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2011-09-15
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Temporary Protected Status: Current Immigration Policy and Issues [December 13, 2011]
"When civil unrest, violence, or natural disasters erupt in spots around the world, concerns arise over the safety of foreign nationals from these troubled places who are in the United States. Provisions exist in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to offer temporary protected status (TPS) or relief from removal under specified circumstances. A foreign national who is granted TPS receives a registration document and an employment authorization for the duration of TPS. The United States currently provides TPS or deferred enforced departure (DED) to over 300,000 foreign nationals from a total of seven countries: El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Somalia, and Sudan. Liberians have had relief from removal for the longest period, first receiving TPS in March 1991 following the outbreak of civil war. The devastation caused by the January 12, 2010, earthquake in Haiti prompted calls for the Administration of President Barrack Obama to grant TPS to Haitians in the United States at the time of the earthquake. The scale of current humanitarian crisis--estimated thousands of Haitians dead and reported total collapse of the infrastructure in the capital city of Port au Prince--led the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to announce on January 13, 2010, that it is temporarily halting the deportation of Haitians. On January 15, 2010, DHS Secretary Janet Napolitano granted TPS to Haitians in the United States at the time of the earthquake. On May 17, 2011, TPS for Haitians was extended until January 22, 2013."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Ester, Karma
2011-12-13
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Syria's Chemical Weapons: Issues for Congress [September 30, 2013]
"Syria has produced, stored, and weaponized chemical agents, but it remains dependent on foreign suppliers for chemical precursors. The regime of President Bashar al Asad possesses stocks of nerve (sarin, VX) and blister (mustard gas) agents, possibly weaponized into bombs, shells, and missiles. The government also has associated production facilities. Chemical weapons and their agents can deteriorate depending on age and quality; little is known from open sources about the current condition of the stockpile. Syria continues to attempt to procure new supplies of chemical weapons precursors, which are dual-use, through front companies in third countries. Most countries that have had chemical weapons arsenals in the past have destroyed, or are in the process of destroying, these weapons under the Chemical Weapons Convention. The U.S. intelligence community cites Iran, North Korea, and Syria as having active chemical weapons programs. The Syrian government acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention on September 14, 2013. This convention requires its member states to eliminate all of their chemical weapon stocks, munitions, precursor chemicals, and related production and storage facilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew; Kerr, Paul K.; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham
2013-09-30
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Syria's Chemical Weapons: Issues for Congress [September 12, 2013]
"Syria has produced, stored, and weaponized chemical agents, but it remains dependent on foreign suppliers for chemical precursors. The regime of President Bashar al Asad possesses stocks of nerve (sarin, VX) and blister (mustard gas) agents, possibly weaponized into bombs, shells, and missiles. The government also has associated production facilities. Chemical weapons and their agents can deteriorate depending on age and quality; little is known from open sources about the current condition of the stockpile. Syria continues to attempt to procure new supplies of chemical weapons precursors, which are dual-use, through front companies in third countries. Most countries that have had chemical weapons arsenals in the past have destroyed, or are in the process of destroying, these weapons under the Chemical Weapons Convention. The U.S. intelligence community cites Iran, North Korea, and Syria as having active chemical weapons programs. The use or loss of control of chemical weapons stocks in Syria could have unpredictable consequences for the Syrian population and neighboring countries, as well as U.S. allies and forces in the region. The United States and other countries have assessed that the Syrian government has used chemical weapons against opposition forces in the country. The largest-scale use to date was on August 21, 2013. A U.N. inspection team began working in Syria on August 19, 2013 and completed their mission on August 31. Laboratories are currently analyzing samples collected by the inspectors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Kerr, Paul K.; Feickert, Andrew
2013-09-12
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Syria's Chemical Weapons: Issues for Congress [August 30, 2013]
"The use or loss of control of chemical weapons stocks in Syria could have unpredictable consequences for the Syrian population and neighboring countries as well as U.S. allies and forces in the region. Congress may wish to assess the Administration's plans to respond to possible scenarios involving the use, change of hands, or loss of control of Syrian chemical weapons. Syria has produced, stored, and weaponized chemical weapons, but it remains dependent on foreign suppliers for chemical precursors. The regime of President Bashar al Asad possesses stocks of nerve (sarin, VX) and blister (mustard gas) agents, possibly weaponized into bombs, shells, and missiles. The government also has associated production facilities. Chemical weapons and their agents can deteriorate depending on age and quality. Little is known from open sources about the current size and condition of the stockpile. Syria continues to attempt to procure new supplies of chemical weapons precursors, which are dual-use, through front companies in third countries. Most countries that have had chemical weapons arsenals in the past have destroyed these weapons under the Chemical Weapons Convention, or are in the process of destroying them. The U.S. intelligence community cites Iran, North Korea, and Syria as having active chemical weapons programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Kerr, Paul K.; Feickert, Andrew
2013-08-30
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State Marijuana Legalization Initiatives: Implications for Federal Law Enforcement [September 9, 2013]
"Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug across the world, including in the United States. In 2012, an estimated 18.9 million individuals in the United States aged 12 or older (7.3% of this population) had used marijuana in the past month. The rate of reported marijuana use in 2012 was significantly higher than those rates reported prior to 2007. Mirroring this increase in use, marijuana availability in the United States has also increased. This growth has been linked to factors such as rising marijuana production in Mexico, decreasing marijuana eradication in Mexico, and increasing marijuana cultivation in the United States led by criminal networks including Mexican drug trafficking organizations. Along with the uptick in the availability and use of marijuana in the United States, there has been a general shift in public attitudes toward the substance. In 1969, 12% of the surveyed population supported legalizing marijuana; today, more than half (52%) of surveyed adults have expressed opinions that marijuana should be legalized. And, 60% indicate that the federal government should not enforce its marijuana laws in states that allow the use of marijuana."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sacco, Lisa N.; Finklea, Kristin M.
2013-09-09
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Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Block Grant: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions [October 2, 2013]
"The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant funds a wide range of benefits and services for low-income families with children. TANF was created in the 1996 welfare reform law (P.L. 104-193). This report responds to some frequently asked questions about TANF; it does not describe TANF rules (see, instead, CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL32748, The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Block Grant: A Primer on TANF Financing and Federal Requirements, by Gene Falk). TANF Funding. TANF provides fixed funding to states, the bulk of which is provided in a $16.5 billion-per-year basic federal block grant. States are required in total to contribute, from their own funds, at least $10.4 billion under a maintenance-of-effort (MOE) requirement. The bulk of federal TANF funding lapsed at the end of September 30, 2013. The pending continuing resolution (H.J.Res. 59) would fund TANF into FY2014. State Spending. Though TANF is best known for funding cash assistance payments for needy families with children, the block grant and MOE funds are used for a wide variety of benefits and activities. In FY2012, expenditures on basic assistance (cash assistance) totaled $9.0 billion-- 28.6% of total federal TANF and MOE dollars. TANF also contributes funds for child care and services for children who have been, or are at risk of being, abused and neglected."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Falk, Gene
2013-10-02
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Authorization, Operation, and Drawdown Policy [August 27, 2013]
"Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) of 1975 to help prevent a repetition of the economic disruption caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. EPCA specifically authorizes the President to draw down the SPR upon a finding that there is a 'severe energy supply interruption.' The meaning of a 'severe energy supply interruption' has been controversial. The authors of EPCA intended the SPR only to ameliorate discernible physical shortages of crude oil. Historically, increasing crude oil prices typically signal market concerns for supply availability. However, Congress deliberately kept price trigger considerations out of the President's SPR drawdown authority because of the question about what price level should trigger a drawdown, and the concern that a price threshold could influence market behavior and industry inventory practices. As a member of the International Energy Agency--a coalition of 28 countries--the United States agrees to support energy supply security through energy policy cooperation, commit to maintaining emergency reserves equal to 90 days of net petroleum oil imports, develop programs for demand restraint in the event of emergencies, and participate in allocation of oil deliveries among the signatory nations to balance a shortage."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Andrews, Anthony; Pirog, Robert L.
2013-08-27
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Synthetic Drugs: Overview and Issues for Congress [September 16, 2013]
"Synthetic drugs, as opposed to natural drugs, are chemically produced in a laboratory. Their chemical structure can be either identical to or different from naturally occurring drugs, and their effects are designed to mimic or even enhance those of natural drugs. When produced clandestinely, they are not typically controlled pharmaceutical substances intended for legitimate medical use. Designer drugs are a form of synthetic drugs. They contain slightly modified molecular structures of illegal or controlled substances, and they are modified in order to circumvent existing drug laws. While the issue of synthetic drugs and their abuse is not new, Congress has demonstrated a renewed concern with the issue. From 2009 to 2011, synthetic drug abuse was reported to have dramatically increased. During this time period, calls to poison control centers for incidents relating to harmful effects of synthetic cannabinoids (such as 'K2' and 'Spice') and stimulants (such as 'bath salts') increased at what some considered to be an alarming rate. The number of hospital emergency department visits involving synthetic cannabinoids more than doubled from 2010 to 2011. In 2012, however, the number of calls to poison control centers for incidents relating to harmful effects of synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic stimulants decreased. The Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey results from 2012 indicate that annual prevalence rates for use of 'bath salts' among college students and adults ages 18-50 was 'very low.' In contrast, MTF reports that, among 12th graders, synthetic marijuana is the 'second most widely used class of illicit drug after marijuana.' Media reports indicate that a synthetic substance known as 'molly,' a psychoactive drug that may be similar or identical to MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), appears to be gaining popularity among youth. In the summer of 2013, several deaths and drug overdoses have been attributed to molly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sacco, Lisa N.; Finklea, Kristin M.
2013-09-16
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Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP): Categorical Eligibility [September 20, 2013]
This report discusses the eligibility restrictions for recipients of food subsidies. "The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides benefits to low-income, eligible households on an electronic benefit transfer (EBT) card; benefits can then be exchanged for foods at authorized retailers. […] Federal SNAP law provides two basic pathways for financial eligibility to the program: (1) meeting program-specific federal eligibility requirements; or (2) being automatically or 'categorically' eligible for SNAP based on being eligible for or receiving benefits from other specified low-income assistance programs. […] The omnibus 'farm bill' approved by the Senate on June 10, 2013 (S. 954), reauthorizes and makes certain changes to SNAP, but does not make changes affecting categorical eligibility. On the other hand, H.R. 3102 (the Nutrition Reform and Work Opportunity Act of 2013), which passed the House on September 19, 2013, would restrict SNAP categorical eligibility to only those households receiving need-tested 'cash' assistance (the traditional form of categorical eligibility), ending the state option to have 'broad-based' categorical eligibility."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Aussenberg, Randy Alison; Falk, Gene
2013-09-20
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Systemically Important or 'Too Big to Fail' Financial Institutions [September 19, 2014]
"Although 'too big to fail' (TBTF) has been a perennial policy issue, it was highlighted by the near-collapse of several large financial firms in 2008. Financial firms are said to be TBTF when policy makers judge that their failure would cause unacceptable disruptions to the overall financial system, and they can be TBTF because of their size or interconnectedness. In addition to fairness issues, economic theory suggests that expectations that a firm will not be allowed to fail create moral hazard--if the creditors and counterparties of a TBTF firm believe that the government will protect them from losses, they have less incentive to monitor the firm's riskiness because they are shielded from the negative consequences of those risks. If so, they could have a funding advantage compared with other banks, which some call an implicit subsidy. […] There are a number of policy approaches--some complementary, some conflicting--to coping with the TBTF problem, including providing government assistance to prevent TBTF firms from failing or systemic risk from spreading; enforcing 'market discipline' to ensure that investors, creditors, and counterparties curb excessive risk-taking at TBTF firms; enhancing regulation to hold TBTF firms to stricter prudential standards than other financial firms; curbing firms' size and scope, by preventing mergers or compelling firms to divest assets, for example; minimizing spillover effects by limiting counterparty exposure; and instituting a special resolution regime for failing systemically important firms. A comprehensive policy is likely to incorporate more than one approach, as some approaches are aimed at preventing failures and some at containing fallout when a failure occurs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Labonte, Marc
2014-09-19
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Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Block Grant: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions [September 23, 2014]
"The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant funds a wide range of benefits and services for low-income families with children. TANF was created in the 1996 welfare reform law (P.L. 104-193). […]This report provides responses to frequently asked questions about the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant. It is intended to serve as a quick reference to provide easy access to information and data. This report does not provide information on TANF program rules."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Falk, Gene
2014-09-23
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Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP): A Primer on Eligibility and Benefits [October 20, 2014]
"The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly called the Food Stamp Program, is designed primarily to increase the food purchasing power of eligible low-income households to help them buy a nutritionally adequate low-cost diet. This report describes the rules related to eligibility for SNAP benefits as well as the rules for benefits and their redemption. SNAP is administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food and Nutrition Service (USDA-FNS). SNAP is authorized by the Food and Nutrition Act of 2008. This law, formerly the Food Stamp Act of 1977, has since 1973 been reauthorized by the 'farm bill,' omnibus legislation that also typically includes the authorization of other federal agricultural policies and programs. The program was most recently reauthorized by the 2014 farm bill (P.L. 113-79, enacted February 7, 2014)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Aussenberg, Randy Alison
2014-10-20
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State Minimum Wages: An Overview [November 18, 2014]
"The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), enacted in 1938, is the federal legislation that establishes the general minimum wage that must be paid to all covered workers. While the FLSA mandates broad minimum wage coverage, states have the option of establishing minimum wage rates that are different from those set in it. Under the provisions of the FLSA, an individual is generally covered by the higher of the state or federal minimum wage. […]This report begins with a brief discussion of FLSA minimum wage coverage. It then provides a summary of state minimum wage laws, followed by an examination of rates and mechanisms of adjustments in states with minimum wage levels above the FLSA rate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bradley, David H.
2014-11-18
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Synthetic Drugs: Overview and Issues for Congress [August 15, 2014]
"Synthetic drugs, as opposed to natural drugs, are chemically produced in a laboratory. Their chemical structure can be either identical to or different from naturally occurring drugs, and their effects are designed to mimic or even enhance those of natural drugs. When produced clandestinely, they are not typically controlled pharmaceutical substances intended for legitimate medical use. Designer drugs are a form of synthetic drugs. They contain slightly modified molecular structures of illegal or controlled substances, and they are modified in order to circumvent existing drug laws. While the issue of synthetic drugs and their abuse is not new, Congress has demonstrated a renewed concern with the issue. From 2009 to 2011, synthetic drug abuse was reported to have dramatically increased. During this time period, calls to poison control centers for incidents relating to harmful effects of synthetic cannabinoids (such as 'K2' and 'Spice') and stimulants (such as 'bath salts') increased at what some considered to be an alarming rate. The number of hospital emergency department visits involving synthetic cannabinoids more than doubled from 2010 to 2011. In 2012 and 2013, however, the number of calls to poison control centers for incidents relating to harmful effects of synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic stimulants decreased. The 'Monitoring the Future' (MTF) survey results from 2012 indicate that annual prevalence rates for use of 'bath salts' among college students and adults ages 18-50 was 'very low.' In contrast, MTF reports that, among 12th graders, synthetic marijuana is the 'second most widely used class of illicit drug after marijuana.' Media reports indicate that a synthetic substance known as 'molly,' a psychoactive drug that may be similar or identical to MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), appears to be gaining popularity among youth. In the summers of 2013 and 2014, several deaths and drug overdoses have been attributed to molly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sacco, Lisa N.; Finklea, Kristin M.
2014-08-15
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [September 29, 2014]
"In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act, known as the SAFER Act, was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry-minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for recruitment and retention of volunteers. SAFER is administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). With the economic turndown adversely affecting budgets of local governments, concerns arose that modifications to the SAFER statute may be necessary to enable fire departments to more effectively and affordably participate in the program. Since FY2009, annual appropriations bills have contained provisions that waive certain provisions of the SAFER statute. The waivers served to reduce the financial obligation on SAFER grant recipients, and allowed SAFER grants to be used to rehire laid-off firefighters and to fill positions lost through attrition. The 112th Congress enacted the Fire Grants Reauthorization Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-239), which reauthorized SAFER through FY2017; altered the grant distribution formula among career, volunteer, combination, and paid-on-call fire departments; raised available funding for higher population areas; and addressed waiver issues previously addressed in annual appropriations legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2014-09-29
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Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [May 29, 2014]
"In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act, known as the SAFER Act, was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. [Public Law] 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry-minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for recruitment and retention of volunteers. SAFER is administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). With the economic turndown adversely affecting budgets of local governments, concerns arose that modifications to the SAFER statute may be necessary to enable fire departments to more effectively and affordably participate in the program. Since FY2009, annual appropriations bills have contained provisions that waive certain provisions of the SAFER statute. The waivers served to reduce the financial obligation on SAFER grant recipients, and allowed SAFER grants to be used to rehire laid-off firefighters and to fill positions lost through attrition."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2014-05-29
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Syria's Chemical Weapons: Progress and Continuing Challenges [October 1, 2014]
"On August 18, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) announced the complete destruction of Syria's declared chemical weapons (CW). Despite this significant achievement, serious challenges relating to Syrian CW remain. In early September, the Syrian regime announced previously undeclared chemical weapons research facilities, raising questions about what else it might be concealing. Repeated reports have alleged chlorine gas attacks by the Assad regime. Moreover, press reports speculate that insecure chemical weapons stocks in Syria and Iraq may have gotten into the hands of the Islamic State (ISIL). Most of these questions cannot yet be answered definitively, but the fate of Syria's CW capabilities warrants continued attention. Syria's CW program began in the 1970s with help from the Soviet Union, primarily as a hedge against Israel. After joining the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), Syria declared 1,300 metric tons of chemical warfare agents and precursor chemicals, including several hundred metric tons of the nerve agents sarin and VX [O-ethyl S-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl) methylphosphonothiolate or Methylphosphonothioic acid], as well as mustard agent in ready-to-use form. The nerve agents were stored as two separate components that are combined before use, a form that facilitated removal and destruction efforts."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moodie, Michael, 1948-; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham
2014-10-01
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One in Six Adults in California Immigrant Families Reported Avoiding Public Benefits in 2019
From the Document: "California has moved proactively to support immigrant families in response to restrictive federal immigration and safety net policies, but policies like the new 'public charge' rule still pose risks, especially in the context of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic. The new rule significantly expands the criteria for determining whether applicants for permanent residency, or green cards, may be denied based on past or potential use of government benefit programs. Even before the rule took effect in February 2020, widespread chilling effects were evident. Nationwide, many immigrant families-- including those who would not be subject to the rule--avoided enrolling in public benefit programs for fear of immigration consequences (Bernstein et al. 2019; Bernstein, McTarnaghan, and Gonzalez 2019; Straut-Eppsteiner 2020; Tolbert, Artiga, and Pham 2019). This phenomenon has become even more alarming during the COVID-19 pandemic, in which many immigrant families are vulnerable to acute medical and economic hardship. Families may avoid medical care and public supports for fear of being deemed a public charge, despite formal clarification by the federal government that COVID-19 testing and treatment will not be considered."
Urban Institute
Bernstein, Hamutal; Gonzalez, Dulce; McTarnaghan, Sara . . .
2020-05
