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• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [February 10, 2006]

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  "The government spends approximately one third of the $83 billion federal R&D budget for intramural research and development to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. This can be achieved by technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. It is a way for the results of the federal R&D enterprise to be used to meet other national needs, including the economic growth that flows from new commercialization in the private sector; the government's requirements for products and processes to operate effectively and efficiently; and the demand for increased goods and services at the state and local level. Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, State governments are increasingly involved in the process. At issue is whether incentives for technology transfer remain necessary, if additional legislative initiatives are needed to encourage increased technology transfer, or if the responsibility to use the available resources now rests with the private sector."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2006-02-10
• Tactical Aircraft Modernization: Issues for Congress [January 23, 2006]

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  "This Issue Brief examines DOD's [Department of Defense] four largest tactical aircraft modernization programs. The background section provides a brief description of each program, and a discussion of how tactical aircraft fit into military air operations: the missions they typically perform and how they contrast to longer-range combat aircraft. The Analysis section examines a number of policy issues including affordability, capability required, force structure, service roles and missions, industrial base, and transformation. The paper concludes with a synopsis of recent congressional action on these programs. […] Congress has questioned these tactical aircraft modernization plans on grounds of affordability and requirements. Because of the lack of consensus about future threats and defense requirements, there has been increasing skepticism about the need for some of these aircraft programs on grounds of cost and affordability, military requirements and force levels, and effects on the defense industrial base. Debate has also emerged on the need to balance modernization needs with military transformation goals."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bolkcom, Christopher C.

  2006-01-23
• State and Local Preparedness for Terrorism: Policy Issues and Options [Updated March 28, 2002]

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  "The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have prompted Members of the 107th Congress to consider enhancing state and local response capabilities to better prepare for terrorist attacks, particularly attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. At present, Congress authorizes several programs designed to help state and local responders enhance their preparedness for terrorist attacks. These programs cover a range of activities, including emergency planning; training and equipment; response to chemical and biological attacks; law enforcement; and public health. Since the September attacks, however, emergency managers and analysts have asked Congress to address several issues in federal policy on state and local preparedness."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Canada, Ben

  2002-03-28
• State and Local Preparedness for Terrorism: Policy Issues and Options [February 5, 2002]

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  "The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have prompted Members of the 107th Congress to consider enhancing state and local response capabilities to better prepare for terrorist attacks, particularly attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. At present, Congress authorizes several programs designed to help state and local responders enhance their preparedness for terrorist attacks. These programs cover a range of activities, including emergency planning; training and equipment; response to chemical and biological attacks; law enforcement; and public health. Since the September attacks, however, emergency managers and analysts have asked Congress to address several issues in federal policy on state and local preparedness."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Canada, Ben

  2002-02-05
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2011 Budget and Appropriations [December 29, 2010]

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  "The annual State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs appropriations bill has been the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in recent years, as Congress has not regularly considered these issues through a complete authorization process for State Department diplomatic activities since 2003 and for foreign aid programs since 1985. Funding for Foreign Operations and State Department/Broadcasting programs has been steadily rising since FY2002, after a period of decline in the 1980s and 1990s. Ongoing assistance to Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as large new global health programs and rapidly increasing assistance to Pakistan, has kept the international affairs budget at historically high levels in recent years. The change of Administration in 2009 did not disrupt this trend. However, increasing concern about the federal budget deficit and accountability for funds already provided may check this growth in FY2011."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo; Resler, Tamara J.

  2010-12-29
• Tajikistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [February 10, 2011]

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  "The civil war had further set back economic development in the country. The economy recovered to its Soviet-era level by the early 2000s, and GDP had expanded several times by the late 2000s, despite setbacks associated with the global economic downturn. Poverty remains widespread, however, and the infrastructure for healthcare, education, transportation, and energy faces steep developmental needs, according to some observers. The country continues to face problems of political integration, perhaps evidenced in part by recent violence in eastern Tajikistan. The country also faces substantial threats from terrorism and narcotics trafficking from Afghanistan. The United States has been Tajikistan's largest bilateral donor, budgeting $778.6 million of aid for Tajikistan (FREEDOM Support Act and agency budgets) over the period from fiscal year 1992 through fiscal year 2008, mainly for food and other humanitarian needs. Budgeted assistance for FY2009 was $35.8 million, and estimated assistance was $48.3 million in FY2010. The Administration requested $47.1 million in foreign assistance for Tajikistan in FY2011 (these FY2009-FY2011 figures exclude most Defense and Energy Department programs). After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, Tajikistan seemed to be willing to cooperate with the United States, but hesitated to do so without permission from Moscow. However, Tajikistan had long supported the Afghan Northern Alliance's combat against the Taliban. Perhaps after gauging Russia's views, Tajikistan soon offered use of Tajik airspace to U.S. forces, and some coalition forces began to transit through Tajik airspace and airfields. U.S., French, and British personnel have used the Dushanbe airport for refueling, and there are some French troops and some aircraft based at Dushanbe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2011-02-10
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [Updated March 6, 2008]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the "Six Assurances" made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. […]. Several policy issues are of concern to Congress for legislation, oversight, or other action. One issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration in applying leverage to improve Taiwan's self-defense as well as to maintain peace and stability. Another issue is the role of Congress in determining security assistance, defense commitments, or policy reviews. A third issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration's management of cross-strait stability. The fundamental issue is how conflict might be best prevented. Legislation in the 110th Congress includes S. 1565 to authorize a sale of excess naval minehunters. On October 2, 2007, the House passed H.Res. 676 that urged the President to consider Taiwan's interest in buying F-16C/D fighters, as consistent with the TRA. The Administration has not accepted Taiwan's formal request for pricing data, although the LY has approved funds."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2008-03-06
• Syria: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated February 26, 2008]

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  "Despite its weak military and lackluster economy, Syria remains relevant in Middle Eastern geopolitics. The Asad regime has its hands in each of the four major active or potential zones of conflict in the region (Lebanon, Israel-Palestine, Iraq, and Iran). […] Syria also plays a key role in the Middle East peace process, acting at times as a 'spoiler' by sponsoring Palestinian militants and facilitating the rearmament of Hezbollah. […] Finally, Syria's longstanding relationship with the Iranian clerical regime is of great concern to U.S. strategists. As Syria has grown more estranged from the United States, Syrian-Iranian relations have improved, and some analysts have called on U.S. policymakers to woo Syrian leaders away from Iran. Others believe that the Administration should go even further in pressuring the Syrian government and should consider implementing even harsher economic sanctions against it. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, largely because of Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175, which imposed additional economic sanctions against Syria. In recent years, the Administration has designated several Syrian entities as weapons proliferators and sanctioned several Russian companies for alleged WMD or advanced weapons sales to Syria. Annual foreign operations appropriations legislation also has contained provisions designating several million dollars annually for programs to support democracy in Syria. This report analyzes an array of bilateral issues that continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2008-02-26
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated April 4, 2008]

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  "U.S.-Taiwan relations have undergone other important changes, sparked in part by the increasing complexity and unpredictability of Taiwan's democratic political environment. Throughout his tenure, Taiwan President Chen Shui-bian, a member of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), disavowed key concepts long embraced by the formerly ruling Nationalist Party (KMT) -- the 'status quo' that there is only one China and Taiwan is part of it -- and instead adopted the more provocative position that Taiwan already 'is an independent, sovereign country.' While these positions succeeded in further elevating the concept of Taiwan nationalism, they have also made many wary of the implications of President Chen's more controversial political positions. Taiwan's relations with the United States have suffered in these controversies, and the People's Republic of China (PRC), which claims that Taiwan is a province of China, has objected strongly to President Chen's policies.The 110th Congress has been concerned with bolstering U.S. support for Taiwan and helping to improve Taiwan's international position. Relevant legislation includes: H.R. 2764 (P.L. 110-161); H.R. 1390; H.R. 3912/S. 1565; H.Con.Res. 73; H.Con.Res. 136; H.Con.Res. 137; H.Con.Res. 170; H.Con.Res. 250; S.Con.Res. 48; and S.Con.Res. 60. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2008-04-04
• State and Local Preparedness for Terrorism: Policy Issues and Options [Updated July 26, 2002]

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  "Congress is presently debating how the structure and responsibilities of a new Department of Homeland Security will impact state and local preparedness for terrorism. Both H.R. 5005 and S. 2452 would consolidate state and local assistance programs into the new department. The department would also be responsible for coordinating the development and implementation of federal, state, and local response plans. At present, Congress authorizes several federal agencies to conduct programs designed to help state and local responders enhance their preparedness for terrorist attacks, particularly attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. These programs cover a range of activities, including emergency planning; training and equipment; response to chemical and biological attacks; law enforcement; and public health. As Congress determines the responsibilities of a new Homeland Security Department, it might consider a range of policy issues frequently mentioned by state and local emergency managers and analysts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Canada, Ben

  2002-07-26
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2011 Budget and Appropriations [October 5, 2010]

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  "This report focuses only on the $56.82 billion requested for programs and activities funded through the State-Foreign Operations appropriations bill, which excludes some portions of the International Affairs request and includes funding for certain commissions requested as part of other budget functions. The Administration requested significant increases for Global Health and Child Survival, Development Assistance, technical assistance and debt restructuring through the Treasury Department, Foreign Military Financing, and various multilateral environmental accounts. Programs for which the Administration recommended significantly reduced funding, compared with enacted FY2010 levels, are contributions to international organizations, commissions and foundations, and peacekeeping operations. In the absence of a FY2011 budget resolution, both the House and Senate have begun work on FY2011 funding legislation using committee-approved discretionary budget allocations. The State-Foreign Operations Subcommittee was allocated $53.9 billion in the House and $54.0 billion in the Senate. The House State-Foreign Operations Appropriations Subcommittee approved a draft FY2011 bill on June 30, which totaled $52.81 billion. On the Senate side, the full Appropriations Committee marked up and approved its FY2011 State-Foreign Operations bill, S. 3676, on July 27, totaling $54.22 billion. This report analyzes the FY2011 request, recent-year funding trends, and congressional action related to FY2011 State-Foreign Operations legislation. The report will be updated to reflect changes in legislative status."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2010-10-05
• Tanzania: Background and Current Conditions [October 6, 2010]

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  "Tanzania, an important U.S. ally in Africa, is a stable and important regional actor. There has been a gradual increase in political pluralism, but Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM ), the ruling party, remains dominant in government and parliament. Tanzania's current president, Jakaya Kikwete, who previously served for 10 years as Tanzania's foreign minister, won 80.3% of the votes cast in the December 2005 presidential election. The next general elections are scheduled for October 2010. President Kikwete selected Mohamed Ghalib Bilal as his running mate for the election. Tanzania continues its pattern of steady real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and has a low and stable inflation rate. The Economist Intelligence Unit predicts real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of 6.4% in 2010 and 7.1% in 2011."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2010-10-06
• Syria: Issues for the 112th Congress and Background on U.S. Sanctions [June 21, 2011]

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  "This report analyzes bilateral issues between the United States and Syria. Unrest in Syria and the Asad government's violent response are adding new complexity to the troubled U.S.-Syrian relationship. The Obama Administration's policy of limited engagement with Syria to address areas of long-standing concern has been met with criticism from some observers, including some Members of Congress. Critics believe that the Administration should apply further pressure to the Syrian government and consider implementing additional economic sanctions against it. The use of violence against Syrian protestors has been accompanied by calls for new U.S. sanctions but also some expression of concern by experts that political unrest in Syria could evolve into a broader civil conflict that in turn could destabilize Syria's neighbors. […] The Asad government's use of force to contain growing protests across Syria may reshape congressional attitudes toward Syria, which have varied. Some in Congress may seek to impose new sanctions against the Asad regime. Other lawmakers may support continued U.S. engagement as a means of mitigating the unpredictable and potentially negative consequences of the unrest. Many observers believe that the violence could preclude a return to engagement and the offering of incentives to address other issues of U.S. concern, absent a fundamental shift in the Syrian government's actions toward its own citizens. In the 112th Congress, S.Res. 180, among other things, strongly condemns and deplores the human rights abuses of the Government of Syria."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2011-06-21
• Syria: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated May 1, 2008]

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  "Despite its weak military and lackluster economy, Syria remains relevant in Middle Eastern geopolitics. The Asad regime has its hands in each of the four major active or potential zones of conflict in the region (Lebanon, Israel-Palestine, Iraq, and Iran). In the Levant, Syrian leaders aim to dominate the internal politics of Lebanon, and have been accused of involvement in the assassination of four parliamentarians and former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. The Asad regime has resisted U.S. and French attempts to bolster the pro-Western government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, believing that it can weather the storm of U.S. pressure over time. Syria also plays a key role in the Middle East peace process, acting at times as a 'spoiler' by sponsoring Palestinian militants and facilitating the rearmament of Hezbollah. At other times, it has participated in substantive negotiations with Israel, most recently in 1999-2000. A September 6 Israeli air strike against an alleged nascent Syrian nuclear facility heightened an already tense atmosphere between the two countries, though most experts believe that neither side desires a new war. Regarding Iraq, the Iraqi refugee crisis has affected Syria far more than Syria has influenced internal Iraqi politics since the fall of Saddam Hussein. There now may be close to 1.4 million Iraqis inside Syria, many of whom face the dim prospect of remaining in permanent exile. Finally, Syria's longstanding relationship with the Iranian clerical regime is of great concern to U.S. strategists. […] This report analyzes an array of bilateral issues that continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria. It will be updated periodically to reflect recent developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2008-05-01
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2009 Appropriations [Updated July 1, 2008]

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  "This report analyzes the FY2009 request and recent-year funding trends; it will track major foreign policy issues Congress may consider and will highlight congressional action throughout the appropriations process. This report will be updated to further reflect congressional action. The annual State, Foreign Operations and Related Agencies appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in general. Funding for Foreign Operations and State Department/Broadcasting programs has been steadily rising since FY2002, and amounts approved for FY2004 in regular and supplemental bills reached an unprecedented level compared with the past 40 years, largely due to Iraq reconstruction funding. Emergency supplementals enacted annually since September 11, 2001, also have pushed spending upward."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2008-07-01
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2012 Budget and Appropriations [July 7, 2011]

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  "Some in the 112th Congress view the foreign affairs budget as a place to cut funds in order to reduce the budget deficit. Foreign affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1% of the annual budget. Others, including Members of Congress of both political parties, view a robust foreign affairs budget as essential for America's national security and foreign policy interests. The State Department, Foreign Operations, and Related Agencies appropriations bills, in addition to funding U.S. diplomatic and foreign aid activities, have been the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in recent years. (Congress has not amended foreign policy issues through a complete authorization process for State Department diplomatic activities since 2003 and for foreign aid programs since 1985.) After a period of decline in the 1980s and 1990s, funding for State Department operations, international broadcasting, and foreign aid rose steadily from FY2002 to FY2010, largely because of ongoing assistance to Iraq, Afghanistan, new global health programs, and increasing assistance to Pakistan. It declined again in FY2011 when Congress passed a continuing resolution (P.L. 112-10) significantly reducing U.S. governmentwide expenditures, including foreign affairs. […] This report analyzes the FY2012 request, including State Department, international broadcasting, and foreign aid highlights, recent-year funding trends, and congressional action related to FY2012 State-Foreign Operations legislation. This report will be updated to reflect congressional action. For details on the FY2011 State-Foreign Operations Appropriations, see CRS Report R41228, State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2011 Budget and Appropriations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo; Resler, Tamara J.

  2011-07-07
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [August 31, 2010]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, the U.S.-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty terminated in 1979. At the last U.S.-Taiwan annual arms sales talks on April 24, 2001, President George W. Bush approved for possible sale diesel-electric submarines, P-3 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft (linked to the submarine sale), four decommissioned U.S. Kidd-class destroyers, and other items. Bush also deferred decisions on Aegis-equipped destroyers and other items, while denying other requests. Afterward, attention turned to Taiwan, where the military, civilian officials, and legislators from competing political parties debated contentious issues about how much to spend on defense and which U.S. weapons to acquire, despite the increasing threat (including a missile buildup) from the People's Liberation Army (PLA). In 2003, the Bush Administration pointed Taiwan to three priorities for defense: command and control, missile defense, and ASW. The Pentagon also has broadened its concern from Taiwan's arms purchases to its defense spending, seriousness in self-defense and protection of secrets, joint capabilities, operational readiness, critical infrastructure protection, and asymmetrical advantages."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2010-08-31
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [September 28, 2010]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, the U.S.-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty terminated in 1979."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2010-09-28
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2010 Budget and Appropriations [February 2, 2010]

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  "On May 7, 2009, President Obama submitted a budget proposal for FY2010 that requests $53.9 billion for the international affairs budget, a 2% increase over the enacted FY2009 funding level, including supplementals. Within that amount, $52.2 billion is for programs and activities funded through the State-Foreign Operations appropriations bill. The Administration requested significant increases to support additional foreign service officers at USAID and the Department of State, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, food security and agricultural development, counter-terrorism and law enforcement activities, and meeting U.S. commitments to international organizations. Among programs and regions for which the Administration recommended reduced funding, compared with estimated FY2009 levels, are economic assistance to Iraq; aid to Europe, Eurasia, and Central Asia; international peacekeeping; and foreign military financing. These comparisons, however, are in relation to unusually high FY2009 total funding levels in some accounts, and do not necessarily reflect shifts in policy or priorities. Key policy issues addressed in the Administration's request include enhancing the capacity of civilian diplomatic and development agencies, promoting U.S. leadership in multilateral development banks, and improving fiscal transparency by funding ongoing programs through the regular appropriations process rather than through supplemental appropriations. The proposal also seeks funding for at least two activities that have been rejected by Congress in the past--multilateral clean investment funds managed by the World Bank and the U.N. Population Fund (UNFPA)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2010-02-02
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [November 9, 2006]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. […] Several policy issues are of concern to Congress for legislation, oversight, or other action. One issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration in applying leverage to improve Taiwan's self-defense as well as to maintain peace and stability. Another issue is the role of Congress in determining security assistance, defense commitments, or policy reviews. A third issue concerns whether trends in the Taiwan Strait are stabilizing or destabilizing and how the Administration's management of policy has affected these trends. The fundamental issue is whether the United States would go to war with China and how conflict might be prevented. On June 29, the House passed H.R. 5672 with Sec. 801 to relax restrictions on senior military visits to and other contacts with Taiwan, but the Senate's version does not have the language. Also, in conference, the House receded from its sections boosting ties to Taiwan in the FY2007 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 109-364)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2006-11-09
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [April 5, 2006]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982 U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. […] Several policy issues are of concern to Congress for legislation, oversight, or other action. One issue concerns the effectiveness of the Administration in applying leverage to improve Taiwan's self-defense as well as to maintain peace and stability. Another issue is the role of Congress in determining security assistance, defense commitments, or policy reviews. A third issue concerns whether trends in the Taiwan Strait are stabilizing or destabilizing and how the Administration's management of policy has affected these trends. The fundamental issue is whether the United States would go to war with China and how conflict might be prevented. In December 2005, the House agreed to the conference report on the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2006 (P.L. 109-163), after receding on two provisions that would have directed U.S. flag and general officers and senior defense officials to visit Taiwan. The Senate's bill did not have this language."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2006-04-05
• Strategic Airlift Modernization: Analysis of C-5 Modernization and C-17 Acquisition Issues [June 6, 2008]

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  "Strategic airlift has played a pivotal role in U.S. national security strategy since World War II. Since then, strategic airlift has provided timely worldwide reach for both combat and humanitarian relief operations. The Department of Defense (DOD) currently operates a mix of C-5 and C-17 aircraft. C-5s were built in two production batches, designated the C-5A and C-5B, respectively. A total of 52 C-5s are scheduled to undergo two major modification programs, after which they will be redesignated C-5M Super Galaxies; the remaining 59 C-5s will a major avionics upgrade. C-17s are currently in production, but the C-17 production line is scheduled to close unless additional orders are placed in an anticipated FY2008 supplemental appropriations bill. […] In addition to the aforementioned options, DOD could increase use of commercial aircraft, encourage foreign or civilian sales of the C-17, bolster reliance on pre-positioning of equipment, leverage potential KC-X airlift capability, pursue airships or hybrid airships, or simply accept less strategic airlift capability. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Knight, William; Bolkcom, Christopher C.

  2008-06-06
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [March 25, 2005]

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  "Syria, governed by President Hafiz al-Asad from 1970 until his death in June 2000, is a prominent player in the Middle East scene. Within the region, a number of border disputes, problems of resource allocation, and political rivalries have caused frequent tensions between Syria and its neighbors. In particular, the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967, has been one of the most intractable issues in the Arab-Israeli dispute. […] On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175. This act imposes additional sanctions against Syria unless it halts support for terrorism, withdraws troops from Lebanon, ends its occupation of Lebanon, ceases development of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and ceases support for terrorist activity in Iraq. Subsequently, on May 11, 2004, the President issued Executive Order 13338 to implement the provisions of this law. The conference report (H.Rept. 108-792) to the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (Division D of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2005) contains a provision making funds available for democracy, human rights, and rule of law programs for Syria, but does not set a dollar amount for these programs in the case of Syria. President Bush signed the bill as P.L. 108-447 on December 8, 2004."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2005-03-25
• Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the 112th Congress [May 31, 2012]

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  "The President and leading Members of Congress have stated that fundamental tax reform is a major policy objective for the 112th Congress. Some Members have said that fundamental tax reform is needed in order to raise a large amount of additional revenue, which is necessary to reduce high forecast budget deficits and the sharply rising national debt. Congressional interest has been expressed in both a major overhaul of the U.S. tax system and the feasibility of levying a consumption tax. Some proponents of reform argue that the tax base should be broadened by reducing or eliminating many tax expenditures. An alternative to increasing tax revenues is cutting spending. Thus, Members are faced with considering the best mix of tax increases and spending cuts in order to reduce deficits and slow the growth of the national debt. […] This report primarily covers fundamental tax reform. CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports are available online concerning the other three categories of tax reform: tax reform based on the elimination of the individual alternative minimum tax (AMT), proposals for reforming the corporate income tax, and proposals for reforming the U.S. taxation of international business."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bickley, James M.

  2012-05-31
• Sugar Program Proposals for the 2012 Farm Bill [May 25, 2012]

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  "The U.S. sugar program is up for renewal this year as Congress considers the future of all farm commodity programs in the context of the omnibus 2012 farm bill. As now structured, the sugar program provides a price guarantee to producers of sugar beets and sugarcane and to the processors of both crops. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) further is directed to administer the program at no budgetary cost to the federal government by limiting the amount of sugar supplied for food use in the U.S. market. To achieve both objectives, USDA has four available tools--authorized by the 2008 farm bill (Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008; P.L. 110-246, Subtitle D of Title I) and chapter 17 of the Harmonized Tariff Schedules of the United States--to keep domestic market prices above guaranteed levels."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jurenas, Remy

  2012-05-25
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [February 10, 2011]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, the U.S.-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty terminated in 1979. At the last U.S.-Taiwan annual arms sales talks on April 24, 2001, President George W. Bush approved for possible sale diesel-electric submarines, P-3 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft (linked to the submarine sale), four decommissioned U.S. Kidd-class destroyers, and other items. Bush also deferred decisions on Aegis-equipped destroyers and other items, while denying other requests. Afterward, attention turned to Taiwan, where the military, civilian officials, and legislators from competing political parties debated contentious issues about how much to spend on defense and which U.S. weapons to acquire, despite the increasing threat (including a missile buildup) from the People's Liberation Army (PLA). In 2003, the Bush Administration pointed Taiwan to three priorities for defense: command and control, missile defense, and ASW. The Pentagon also has broadened its concern from Taiwan's arms purchases to its defense spending, seriousness in self-defense and protection of secrets, joint capabilities, operational readiness, critical infrastructure protection, and asymmetrical advantages."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2011-02-10
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales since 1990 [February 16, 2010]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty with Taiwan."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2010-02-16
• Syria: Background and U.S. Relations [September 14, 2009]

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  "Despite its weak military and lackluster economy, Syria remains relevant in Middle Eastern geopolitics. The Asad regime has its hands in each of the four major active or potential zones of conflict in the region (Lebanon, Israel-Palestine, Iraq, and Iran). In the Levant, Syrian leaders aim to dominate the internal politics of Lebanon, and have been accused of involvement in the assassination of four parliamentarians and former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. The Asad regime has resisted U.S. and French attempts to bolster the pro-Western government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, believing that it can weather the storm of U.S. pressure over time. Syria also plays a key role in the Middle East peace process, acting at times as a 'spoiler' by sponsoring Palestinian militants and facilitating the rearmament of Hezbollah. [...]. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, largely because of Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175, which imposed additional economic sanctions against Syria. In recent years, the Administration has designated several Syrian entities as weapons proliferators and sanctioned several Russian companies for alleged WMD or advanced weapons sales to Syria. [...].This report analyzes an array of bilateral issues that continue to affect relations between the United States and Syria."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2009-09-14
• Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development [November 5, 2009]

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  "The federal government spends approximately one third of its annual research and development [R&D] budget for intramural R&D to meet mission requirements in over 700 government laboratories (including Federally Funded Research and Development Centers). The technology and expertise generated by this endeavor may have application beyond the immediate goals or intent of federally funded R&D. These applications can result from technology transfer, a process by which technology developed in one organization, in one area, or for one purpose is applied in another organization, in another area, or for another purpose. [...] Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years. Critics argue that working with the agencies and laboratories continues to be difficult and time-consuming. Proponents of the current effort assert that while the laboratories are open to interested parties, the industrial community is making little effort to use them. At the same time, State governments are increasingly involved in the process. At issue is whether incentives for technology transfer remain necessary, if additional legislative initiatives are needed to encourage increased technology transfer, or if the responsibility to use the available resources now rests with the private sector."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2009-11-05
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [Updated January 8, 2008]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' made to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. In addition, the United States has expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, there is no defense treaty or alliance with Taiwan. At the U.S.-Taiwan arms sales talks on April 24, 2001, President George W. Bush approved for possible sale diesel-electric submarines, P-3 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft (linked to the submarine sale), four decommissioned U.S. Kidd-class destroyers, and other items. Bush also deferred decisions on Aegisequipped destroyers and other items, while denying other requests. Since then, attention has turned to Taiwan, where the military, civilian officials, and legislators from competing political parties have debated contentious issues about how much to spend on defense and which U.S. weapons systems to acquire, despite the increasing threat (including a missile buildup) from the People's Liberation Army (PLA), as described in the Pentagon's reports to Congress on PRC military power. In February 2003, the Administration pointed Taiwan to three priorities for defense: command and control, missile defense, and ASW."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2008-01-08