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U.S. Forces in Iraq [November 13, 2006]

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"Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. As of November 1, 2006, according to DOD, the United States had 147,796 troops stationed in Iraq -- 124,266 active component and 23,530 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations', by Steve Bowman."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

2006-11-13
U.S.-Peru Economic Relations and the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement [November 6, 2007]

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"On December 7, 2005, the United States and Peru concluded negotiations on the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA). President Bush notified the Congress of the United States' intention to enter into the PTPA on January 6, 2006, and the agreement was signed on April 12, 2006 by U.S. Trade Representative Rob Portman and Peruvian Minister of Foreign Trade and Tourism Alfredo Ferrero Diez. The PTPA is a comprehensive trade agreement that, if approved by Congress, would eliminate tariffs and other barriers in goods and services trade between the United States and Peru. The approval and implementation of a PTPA is a high priority for the Peruvian government. Peruvian President Alan García has met with President Bush and Members of Congress on several occasions in the United States to stress the importance of the agreement for Peru. […] The House is expected to consider the implementing legislation (H.R. 3688) for the U.S.-Peru FTA during the week of November 5, 2007 under the Trade Promotion Authority which requires an expedited process with limited debate and an up or down vote. Implementing legislation has not been introduced. On June 28, 2006, the Peruvian Congress voted 79 to 14 to approve the PTPA. On May 10, 2007, Congress and the Administration reached an agreement on a new bipartisan trade framework that calls for the inclusion of core labor and environmental standards in the text of pending and future trade agreements. On June 25, 2007, the United States reached an agreement with Peru on legally-binding amendments to the PTPA on labor, the environment, and other matters to reflect the bipartisan agreement of May 10. On June 27, 2007, Peru's Congress voted 70 to 38 in favor of the amendments to the PTPA. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Villarreal, M. Angeles

2007-11-06
U.S. Agricultural Trade: Trends, Composition, Direction, and Policy [September 25, 2006]

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"U.S. agricultural exports for FY2006 are forecast by the U.S. Department of Agriculture at $68 billion. Agricultural imports are expected to reach $64.5 billion. The agricultural trade surplus, projected to be $3.5 billion, is at its lowest level in 19 years. Exports of bulk commodities (e.g., soybeans, wheat, and feed grains) remain significant, but exports of high-value products (HVPs), such as meats, fruits, and vegetables, are increasing. HVPs accounted for 62% of total U.S. agricultural exports in FY2005. […] Both the EU [European Union] and the United States subsidize their agricultural sectors, but overall the EU out-subsidizes the United States. Recent reforms of the EU's Common Agricultural policy shift substantial spending into direct income support decoupled from production and into rural development. Canada supports some sectors (e.g., dairy and poultry) more than others. Australia provides less support to its agriculture. Single desk sellers with monopoly powers operate wheat markets and markets for some other commodities in Canada and Australia. Export subsidies are more important in the EU than in the United States; border measures (tariffs) are more important in Canada than in either the United States or the EU. Australia operates a mix of trade measures. The United States is the dominant supplier of foreign food aid, followed by the EU, Canada, and Australia. U.S. and other major food aid donors provide commodities mainly for development assistance or emergency relief. This report will be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Hanrahan, Charles; Banks, Beverly A.

2006-09-25
Unmanned Vehicles for U.S. Naval Forces: Background and Issues for Congress [May 31, 2006]

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"Unmanned vehicles (UVs) are viewed as a key element of the effort to transform U.S. military forces. The Department of the Navy may eventually acquire every major kind of UV. Navy and Marine Corps UV programs raise several potential issues for Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald

2006-05-31
U.S. Direct Investment Abroad: Trends and Current Issues [January 2, 2008]

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"The United States is the largest investor abroad and the largest recipient of direct investment in the world. For some Americans, the national gains attributed to investing overseas are offset by such perceived losses as displaced U.S. workers and lower wages. Some observers believe U.S. firms invest abroad to avoid U.S. labor unions or high U.S. wages, however, 70% of U.S. foreign direct investment is concentrated in high income developed countries. Even more striking is the fact that the share of investment going to developing countries has fallen in recent years. Most economists conclude that direct investment abroad does not lead to fewer jobs or lower incomes overall for Americans and that the majority of jobs lost among U.S. manufacturing firms over the past decade reflect a broad restructuring of U.S. manufacturing industries. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2008-01-02
U.S. Embassy in Iraq [December 14, 2007]

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"Construction of the New Embassy Compound (NEC) in Baghdad is completed, and final inspection is expected before the end of December 2007. At that time, it will be up to the Chief of Mission to determine when U.S. government personnel move in, according to State Department officials. While construction for the NEC itself is virtually on time and on budget, new follow-on requirements will cost an additional $150 million and several months of labor, these officials say. The additional requirements include space at the embassy compound for General Patraeus and his staff, as requested in a mid-2007 report by State's then-Director of Management and Planning. Currently, Congress has not yet taken up the FY2008 emergency supplemental request that includes $2.1 billion for Iraq mission operations. Construction costs and funding for mission operations for the U.S. Embassy in Iraq, thus far, have been met only through supplemental appropriations. For FY2008, in addition to the $2.1 billion in the FY2008 supplemental, the Bush Administration has sought $65 million in the regular appropriations for ongoing funding for operations in Iraq. In addition, the Administration had requested $823.9 million for mission operations in an FY2007 supplemental request. On May 24, 2007, Congress passed a compromise supplemental appropriation (H.R. 2206), which the President signed into law (P.L. 110-28) on May 25. The enacted law included $750 million for State Department operations in Iraq. This report will be updated as information becomes available."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Epstein, Susan B.

2007-12-14
U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Rising Oil Prices [January 15, 2008]

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"Petroleum prices have risen sharply since early 2005. At the same time the average monthly volume of imports of energy-related petroleum products has fallen slightly. The combination of sharply rising prices and a slightly lower level of imports of energyrelated petroleum products translates into an escalating cost for those imports. This rising cost added an estimated $70 billion to the nation's trade deficit in 2005 and $50 billion in 2006. Imported energy prices moderated in early 2007, before rising again through the summer and more sharply in the fall, following a pattern of rising energy import prices in the spring and summer. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the rising oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit. This report will be updated as warranted by events."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Jackson, James K., 1949-

2008-01-15
U.S. Forces in Afghanistan [November 30, 2007]

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"As interest in troop level deployments continues, President Bush announced in a February 15, 2007, speech the Administration's plans for an increase in U.S. forces in Afghanistan, including a planned gradual increase of 3,200 U.S. troops on the ground in the coming several months. This report provides official Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces now serving in Afghanistan with comparisons to earlier force levels. It also provides brief official information on the military units extended or scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Afghanistan. As of November 1, 2007, according to DOD, the United States had 24,474 troops stationed in Afghanistan -- 21,202 active component and 3,272 National Guard or Reserves. They are serving in two missions -- a NATO-led peacekeeping mission and a separate U.S.-led combat effort called Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL30588, 'Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security and U.S. Policy' by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RL33503, 'U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress', by Andrew Feickert."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

2007-11-30
Venezuela: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy [Updated September 4, 2007]

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"The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been friction in relations with the Chávez government. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about President Chávez's military arms purchases, his relations with such countries as Cuba and Iran, his efforts to export his brand of populism to other Latin American countries, and concerns about the state of democracy. Declining cooperation on antidrug and anti-terrorism efforts has also been a U.S. concern. In 2005 and 2006, President Bush designated Venezuela as a country that has failed demonstrably to adhere to its obligations under international narcotics agreements, and in 2006, the Department of State prohibited the sale of defense articles and services to Venezuela because of its lack of cooperation on anti-terrorism efforts."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sullivan, Mark P.; Olhero, Nelson

2007-09-04
U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated December 27, 2007]

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"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship has been virtually normalized. Indeed, since 2002, overlapping strategic and economic interests have compelled the United States and Vietnam to improve relations across a wide spectrum of issues. Congress played a significant role in the normalization process and continues to influence the state of bilateral relations. Voices favoring improved relations have included those reflecting U.S. business interests in Vietnam's reforming economy and U.S. strategic interests in expanding cooperation with a populous country -- Vietnam has over 85 million people -- that has an ambivalent relationship with China. Others argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Vietnam's authoritarian government improving its record on human rights. The population of over 1 million Vietnamese Americans, as well as legacies of the Vietnam War, also drive continued U.S. interest."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.

2007-12-27
U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean: FY2006-FY2008 [December 28, 2007]

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"Trends in U.S. assistance to the Latin America and Caribbean region generally reflect the trends and rationales for U.S. foreign aid programs globally. Aid to the region increased during the 1960s with the Alliance for Progress, and during the 1980s with aid to Central America. Since 2000, aid levels have increased, especially in the Andean region, as the focus has shifted from Cold War issues to counternarcotics and security assistance. Current aid levels to Latin America and the Caribbean comprise about 5.8% of the worldwide FY2007 aid budget, including both bilateral and multilateral assistance. Amounts requested for the regular FY2008 budget would increase this ratio to 6.1%, and to 7.2% if Congress approves supplemental funds for a new counternarcotics initiative in Mexico and Central America. Three countries -- Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador -- have signed compacts for Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) funds worth a combined $851 million. Aid levels to the region could increase further as more countries become eligible for MCA. Both Haiti and Guyana are focus countries for the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sullivan, Mark P.; Veillette, Connie; Seelke, Clare Ribando

2007-12-28
U.S. Food and Agricultural Imports: Safeguards and Selected Issues [Updated November 8, 2007]

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"U.S. officials continue to assert that the U.S. food supply, including the portion provided through imports, is among the safest in the world. One challenge has been how to keep it safe in the face of rapidly rising imports, a result of globalization and consumer desire for a wider variety of nutritious and inexpensive foods year-round. Two federal agencies -- USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) -- are responsible for the majority of the total funding and staffing of the government's food regulatory system. For imports, FSIS relies on a very different regulatory system than FDA, including a differing approach to addressing equivalence, as described in this report."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Becker, Geoffrey S.

2007-11-08
Ukraine: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated December 17, 2007]

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"In January 2005, Viktor Yushchenko became Ukraine's new President, after massive demonstrations helped to overturn the former regime's electoral fraud, in what has been dubbed the 'Orange Revolution,' after Yushchenko's campaign color. The 'Orange Revolution' sparked a good deal of interest in Congress and elsewhere. Some hoped that Ukraine might finally embark on a path of comprehensive reforms and Euro-Atlantic integration after nearly 15 years of half-measures and false starts. However, infighting within his governing coalition hampered economic reforms and led to disillusionment among Orange Revolution supporters."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Woehrel, Steven J.

2007-12-17
U.S. International HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Spending: FY2004-FY2008 [Updated November 19, 2007]

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"On January 28, 2003, during his State of the Union Address, President George Bush proposed that the United States spend $15 billion over five years to combat HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), and malaria through the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). The President proposed that most of the spending on PEPFAR programs be concentrated in 15 countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Of the $15 billion, the Plan proposed spending $9 billion on prevention, treatment, and care services in the 15 Focus Countries, where the Administration estimated 50% of all HIV-positive people lived. The President also proposed that $5 billion of the funds be spent on existing bilateral HIV/AIDS, TB, and malaria programs and research, and $1 billion of PEFPAR funds be reserved for U.S. contributions to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (Global Fund). Between FY2004 and FY2008, PEPFAR aims to have supported care for 10 million people affected by HIV/AIDS, including children orphaned by AIDS; prevented 7 million new HIV infections; and supported efforts to provide antiretroviral medication (ARV) to 2 million HIV-infected people."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji

2007-11-19
Uganda: Current Conditions and the Crisis in North Uganda [Updated April 4, 2008]

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"In February 2006, Ugandans voted in the first multi-party elections in almost 26 years. President Yoweri Museveni and his ruling National Revolutionary Movement (NRM) parliamentary candidates won a decisive victory over opposition candidate Kizza Besigye and the Forum for Democracy Coalition. Nevertheless, poll results showed a notable decline in support for President Museveni from previous elections. International election observers did not condemn the election results, nor did they fully endorse the electoral process. Critics charged the government with intimidating the opposition during the pre-election period, and Besigye spent much of the campaign period in jail. The election followed a controversial move by the Ugandan parliament in July 2005 to remove the constitutional two-term limit on the presidency. In the north, the government of Uganda has long fought the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), an armed rebel group backed by the government of Sudan. Through over 20 years of civil war, the brutal insurgency has created a humanitarian crisis that has displaced over 1.5 million and resulted in the abduction of over 20,000 children. In 2006-07, the government of Uganda and the LRA have been actively engaged in an effort to resolve the conflict peacefully. The Government of Southern Sudan (GOSS) has been mediating the talks since June 2006. The negotiations have had some success in halting the fighting. In August 2006, the government of Uganda and the LRA signed a Cessation of Hostilities Agreement. The cessation of hostilities has allowed an estimated 400,000 displaced people to return to their homes."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Dagne, Theodore S.; Reeves, Hannah

2008-04-04
U.S. Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions [Updated January 31, 2008]

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"U.S. law provides for the temporary admission of various categories of foreign nationals, who are known as nonimmigrants. Nonimmigrants are admitted for a designated period of time and a specific purpose. They include a wide range of visitors, including tourists, foreign students, diplomats, and temporary workers. There are 24 major nonimmigrant visa categories, and 72 specific types of nonimmigrant visas issued. These visa categories are commonly referred to by the letter and numeral that denotes their subsection in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA); for example, B-2 tourists, E-2 treaty investors, F-1 foreign students, H-1B temporary professional workers, J-1 cultural exchange participants, or S-4 terrorist informants. Interest in nonimmigrant visas soared immediately following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, which were conducted by foreign nationals apparently admitted to the United States on legal visas. Since that time, policy makers have raised a series of questions about aliens in the United States and the extent that the federal government monitors their admission and presence in this country. […].The law and regulations set terms for nonimmigrant lengths of stay in the United States, typically have foreign residency requirements, and often limit what aliens are permitted to do in the United States (e.g., gain employment or enroll in school), but many observers assert that the policies are not uniformly or rigorously enforced. Achieving an optimal balance among major policy priorities, such as ensuring national security, facilitating trade and commerce, protecting public health and safety, and fostering international cooperation, remains a challenge."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Haddal, Chad C.

2008-01-31
U.S.-China Counterterrorism Cooperation: Issues for U.S. Policy [Updated March 3, 2008]

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"After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the United States faced a challenge in enlisting the full support of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in counterterrorism. This effort raised short-term policy issues about how to elicit cooperation and how to address China's concerns about military action (Operation Enduring Freedom). Longer-term issues have concerned whether counterterrorism has strategically transformed bilateral relations and whether China's support has been valuable and not obtained at the expense of other U.S. interests. The extent of U.S.-China counterterrorism cooperation has been limited, but the tone and context of counterterrorism helped to stabilize-even if it did not transform-the closer bilateral relationship pursued by President George Bush since late 2001. China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA), has not participated in the counterterrorism coalition. Still, for almost four years after the attacks on September 11, 2001, President Bush and other administration officials tended to praise the PRC's diplomatic and other support for the war against terrorism. Since 2005, however, U.S. concerns about China's extent of cooperation in counterterrorism have increased. […] The summits of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in 2005 and 2006 raised U.S. concerns. Since the summer of 2007, U.S. officials have expressed more concern about China-origin arms that have been found in the conflict involving U.S. forces in Afghanistan, as part of the broader threat posed by Iran and its arms transfers."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kan, Shirley

2008-03-03
U.S. International HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Spending: FY2004-FY2008 [Updated February 29, 2008]

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On January 28, 2003, during his State of the Union Address, President George Bush proposed that the United States spend $15 billion over five years to combat HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), and malaria through the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). The President proposed that most of the spending on PEPFAR programs be concentrated in 15 countries. Of the $15 billion, the President suggested spending $9 billion on prevention, treatment, and care services in the 15 Focus Countries, where the Administration estimated 50% of all HIV-positive people lived. The President also proposed that $5 billion of the funds be spent on existing bilateral HIV/AIDS, TB, and malaria programs and research, and $1 billion of PEFPAR funds be reserved for U.S. contributions to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (Global Fund). Between FY2004 and FY2008, PEPFAR aims to have supported care for 10 million people affected by HIV/AIDS, including children orphaned by AIDS; prevented 7 million new HIV infections; and supported efforts to provide anti-retroviral medication (ARV) to 2 million HIV-infected people [...] This report reviews U.S. appropriations for treatment and prevention of the three diseases from FY2004 through FY2008. The report will not be updated; PEPFAR authorization expires in FY2008. Subsequent reports will analyze additional funding should the initiative be reauthorized."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji

2008-02-29
U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements with and Deliveries to Major Clients, 1999-2006 [December 20, 2007]

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"This report provides background data on United States arms sales agreements with and deliveries to its major purchasers during calendar years 1999-2006. In a series of data tables, it lists the total dollar values of U.S. government-to-government arms sales agreements with its top five purchasers in five specific regions of the world for three specific periods: 1999-2002, 2003-2006, and 2006 alone, and the total dollar values of U.S. arms deliveries to its top five purchasers in those same regions for the periods 1999-2002, 2003-2006, and for 2006 alone. In addition, the report provides data tables listing the total dollar values of U.S. government-to-government arms agreements with and deliveries to its top 10 purchasers worldwide for the periods 1999-2002, 2003-2006, and for 2006 alone. This report is prepared in conjunction with the annual CRS report for Congress entitled Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1999-2006 […]. That report details both U.S. and foreign arms transfer activities globally and provides analysis of arms trade trends. The intent here is to complement that elaborate worldwide treatment of the international arms trade by providing only the dollar values of U.S. arms sales agreements with and delivery values to its leading customers, by geographic region, for the calendar years 1999-2002, 2003-2006, and 2006. Unlike CRS Report RL34187, this annual report focuses exclusively on U.S. arms sales and provides the specific names of the major U.S. arms customers, by region, together with the total dollar values of their arms purchases or deliveries."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

2007-12-20
U.S. Nuclear Cooperation With India: Issues for Congress [October 4, 2006]

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"On July 18, 2005, President Bush announced he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader, global partnership with India to promote stability, democracy, prosperity and peace. Administration officials have promoted nuclear cooperation with India as a way to reduce India's carbon dioxide emissions and its dependence on oil, bring India into the 'nonproliferation mainstream' and create jobs for U.S. industry. India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all nuclear material in peaceful nuclear activities, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. […] The Senate bill contains implementing legislation for the U.S. Additional Protocol, which reportedly is controversial for some Members. Negotiations between U.S. and Indian officials are proceeding slowly on the text of a cooperation agreement as are negotiations between IAEA [International Atomic Energy Agency] and Indian officials on a safeguards agreement. The NSG has not yet decided to take a decision and appears to be awaiting action by the U.S. Congress. This report will be updated as necessary."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Squassoni, Sharon A.

2006-10-04
U.S. Foreign Aid to East and South Asia: Selected Recipients [April 10, 2002]

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"The U.S. war on terrorism has given new impetus to U.S. aid to Asia. In addition to the goals of alleviating poverty, encouraging democratic social and political forces, fostering economic growth and stability, and cultivating bilateral relations in Asia, since September 2001, the United States has redoubled its efforts in fighting terrorism in parts of the region. This report discusses changing U.S. aid programs for 16 East Asian and South Asian countries."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-

2002-04-10
Western Sahara: Status of Settlement Efforts [September 29, 2006]

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"Since the 1970s, Morocco and the independence-seeking Popular Front for the Liberation of Saqiat al Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) have vied for control of the Western Sahara, a former Spanish territory. In 1991, the United Nations arranged a cease-fire and proposed a settlement plan that called for a referendum to allow the people of the Western Sahara to choose between independence and integration into Morocco. A long deadlock on determining the electorate for a referendum ensued. Since 2001, the U.N. has unsuccessfully suggested alternatives to the unfulfilled settlement plan, particularly one formulated by James Baker. Latterly, the U.N. has called on the parties to negotiate. An end to the impasse is not in sight, and it has affected Algerian-Moroccan bilateral relations and wider regional cooperation. The United States supports U.N. efforts and a solution that would not destabilize its ally, Morocco. Congress supports a referendum and is frustrated by delays. This report will be updated if developments warrant. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21579, 'Morocco: Current Issues', and CRS Report RS21532, 'Algeria: Current Issues.'"

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Migdalovitz, Carol

2006-09-29
Unmanned Vehicles for U.S. Naval Forces: Background and Issues for Congress [July 26, 2006]

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"Unmanned vehicles (UVs) are viewed as a key element of the effort to transform U.S. military forces. The Department of the Navy may eventually acquire every major kind of UV. Navy and Marine Corps UV programs raise several potential issues for Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald

2006-07-26
U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [April 17, 2006]

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"Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations and the Administration has given U.S. SOF forces greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counter-terrorism operations. The 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) has called for a 15% increase in special operations forces beginning in FY2007. Proposals to elevate the command of the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) and the realignment of civil affairs, psychological operations (psyops) and combat search and rescue (CSAR) functions out from under the control of the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), has raised concerns that SOF is perhaps becoming too focused on immediate versus long-term results. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew

2006-04-17
U.S. Forces in Iraq [June 14, 2006]

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"Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces serving in Iraq. As of June 1, 2006, according to DOD, the United States had 128,789 troops stationed in Iraq -- 102,709 active component and 26,080 National Guard or Reserves. For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31701, 'Iraq: U.S. Military Operations', by Steve Bowman."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

2006-06-14
USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005: A Legal Analysis [March 24, 2006]

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"Several sections of the USA PATRIOT Act and one section of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 were originally scheduled to expire on December 31, 2005. In July 2005, both Houses approved USA PATRIOT reauthorization acts, H.R. 3199 and S. 1389, and the conference committee filed a report, H.Rept. 109-333. A separate bill, the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006 (S. 2271), provided civil liberties safeguards not included in the conference report. Both H.R. 3199 and S. 2271 were signed into law (P.L. 109-177 and P.L. 109-178) by the President on March 9, 2006. This report describes the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 (the Act) and, where appropriate, discusses the modifications to law made by the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Doyle, Charles; Yeh, Brian T.

2006-03-24
U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [Updated June 30, 2006]

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"This CRS Report discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of contacts since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration began to re-engage the PRC leadership up to the highest level and including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, and the EP-3 aircraft collision incident in 2001."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kan, Shirley

2006-06-30
U.S. Nuclear Cooperation With India: Issues for Congress [Updated June 27, 2006]

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"India, which has never signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT), has nuclear weapons and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all nuclear material in peaceful nuclear activities. Its explosion of a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974 convinced the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. Nonproliferation experts have suggested that potential costs to U.S. and global nonproliferation policy of nuclear cooperation with India may far exceed the benefits. At a time when the United States has called for all states to strengthen their domestic export control laws and for tighter multilateral controls, U.S. nuclear cooperation with India would require loosening its own nuclear export legislation, as well as creating a Nuclear Suppliers Group exception. It would reverse nearly three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy and practice towards India. Some believe this agreement undercuts the basic bargain of the NPT, could undermine hard-won restrictions on nuclear supply, and could prompt some suppliers, like China, to justify supplying other states outside the NPT regime, like Pakistan. Others believe that allowing India access to the international uranium market will free up domestic uranium sources to make more nuclear weapons."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Squassoni, Sharon A.

2006-06-27
U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 14, 2006]

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"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship in many ways has been virtually normalized. Congress has played a significant role in this process. Each step in improving bilateral ties has brought controversy, albeit at diminishing levels. Some argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Hanoi improving its record on human and religious rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Opposition to the pace and scope of normalization also has come from groups arguing that Vietnam has not done enough to account for U.S. Prisoners of War/Missing in Action from the Vietnam War, though this argument has diminished markedly in recent years. Interests favoring normalization have included those reflecting a strong U.S. business interest in Vietnam's reforming economy and American strategic interests in integrating Vietnam more fully into East Asia and in expanding cooperation with a country that has an ambivalent relationship with China."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Manyin, Mark E.

2006-06-14
War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [July 11, 2006]

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"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This report does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution. The purpose of the War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the United States involved in hostilities. Compliance becomes an issue whenever the President introduces U.S. forces abroad in situations that might be construed as hostilities or imminent hostilities. Criteria for compliance include prior consultation with Congress, fulfillment of the reporting requirements, and congressional authorization. If the President has not complied fully, the issue becomes what action Congress should take to bring about compliance or to influence U.S. policy. A related issue has been congressional authorization of U.N. peacekeeping or other U.N.-sponsored actions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Grimmett, Richard F.

2006-07-11

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