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• Establishing Fire Prevention Education Cooperative Programs and Partnerships

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  "Cooperation is not exclusive to corporations. Though fire prevention organizations are not normally required to compete in the marketplace, they often find themselves involved with more alliances today than in the past. Diminishing budgets and increased expectations of public services require new and more diverse cooperative approaches. […] Indeed, cooperation is hard to define because it can mean different things to each agency involved. The act of cooperating also takes on unique qualities in each situation. This section describes a process that may be adopted for use by many agencies for a common purpose, in this case, fire prevention. As in business, some alliances may be short in duration and scope, others more long-term. Regardless of the duration, most will require planning, nurturing, and formal documenting. Rapid urban expansion and uses of resources challenges land and resource managers, urban planners, governing entities, and emergency service agencies. It also has the potential to greatly affect the quality of life for people who use and choose to live in the area known as the wildland/urban interface. For example, fires in the wildland/urban interface can be unique. They challenge both structural and wildland firefighters, who are trained and equipped differently. Wildland firefighting agencies are now faced with an increased number of homes built in the path of wildfires, and their municipal counterparts are grappling with multiple ignitions from fast-burning vegetative fires. Everyone agrees that no single agency is adequately prepared to handle both types of firefighting."

  National Wildfire Coordinating Group (U.S.)

  1999-10
• Advisory Circular: Airport Emergency Plan, 1999

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  "This [1999] Advisory Circular (AC) provides guidance to the airport operator in developing and implementing an Airport Emergency Plan (AEP). The AEP ensures the safety and service for people and the community in which the airport is located. The AEP should be a functional, comprehensive, and well-coordinated document."

  United States. Federal Aviation Administration

  1999-09-30
• Counter-Terrorism: National Priorities and the Federal Plan of Action (1999 Region III Chemical Emergency Preparedness & Prevention Conference)

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  The following is an overview of this presentation on counter-terrorism: CT Timeline; National CT Program including Domestic Preparedness Program, and DOJ/FBI, FEMA, HHS, DoD, DoE, and EPA; CT Grant Programs; and a conclusion. The conclusion states that the potential for a large NBC terrorist incident is becoming more real; NBC incidents are also hazmat incidents and require very similar hazmat response; EPA brings the existing system for hazmat response, and coordination experience with state and local responders, to the federal response terrorism event; and many incidents may not require activation of the full system and responders must be prepared for these situations.

  United States. Environmental Protection Agency

  Stroech, Ken

  1999-09-22
• New World Coming: American Security in the 21st Century: Supporting Research and Analysis: The Phase I Report on the Emerging Global Security Environment for the First Quarter of the 21st Century

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  As powerful as the United States may well be over the next 25 years, the world will not be tidily managed, whether from Washington or from anywhere else. History has not ended, mankind's cultural diversity endures, and both the will to power and the pull of passionate ideas remain as relevant as ever in political life both within and among nations. A diffusion of power thus stands before us, but not necessarily one of the classical sort. A new balance of power may arise that would be intelligible even to the statesmen of the 18th and 19th centuries, but something more, and something different, will overlap and perhaps overwhelm it. The ever tighter harnessing of science to technological innovation, and of that innovation to global economic integration, is changing the rules of international engagement. It is even affecting the identity of its engaging parties. The sway of state power has always fluctuated within society, and states have often competed with other institutions for influence beyond their borders. But the challenges now being mounted to national authority and control--if not to the national idea itself--are both novel and mighty.

  United States Commission on National Security/21st Century

  1999-09-15
• Combating Terrorism: Need for Comprehensive Threat and Risk Assessments of Chemical and Biological Attacks, Report to Congressional Requesters

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  The ease or difficulty for terrorists to cause mass casualties with an improvised chemical or biological weapon depends on the agent selected. Experts agree that toxic chemicals can cause mass casualties and require little if any expertise or sophisticated methods. Most chemical nerve agents, however, are technically challenging for terrorists to acquire, manufacture, and produce. Also, terrorists working outside a state-run laboratory would have to overcome extraordinary challenges to effectively and successfully weaponize and deliver a biological agent and cause mass casualties. Although the intelligence community has issued assessments that discuss foreign-origin and biological terrorist threats, including judgements about which chemical and biological agents would most likely be used, the FBI has yet to produce a formal written assessment of the most likely domestic-origin chemical and biological terrorist threats. GAO believes that a sound national-level risk assessment could provide a strategic guide to help shape, focus, and prioritize federal efforts to combat terrorism. Such an assessment would be done by a multidisciplinary team of experts on intelligence, terrorism, chemical and biological agents, weapons, law enforcement, and health and other experts. The team could (1) generate valid threat scenarios, (2) assess and prioritize scenario risk in terms of the likelihood and the severity of consequences, and (3) determine appropriate countermeasures or other programmatic responses.

  United States. General Accounting Office

  1999-09-07
• Department of Defense Directive 3115.8: Collection of Information on Non-U.S. Persons Outside the United States at Request of U.S. Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs)

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  "This Directive establishes policies and procedures and allocates responsibilities for implementation within the Department of Defense (DoD) of reference (a), which provides that designated Department Intelligence Components may, upon the request of a United States Federal Law Enforcement Agency (LEA), collect information outside the United States about individuals who are not United States persons, for use in law enforcement investigations or counterintelligence investigations."

  United States. Department of Defense

  1999-09-07
• Telecommunications Manual (TCM)

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  "This Manual establishes policy and prescribes procedures for the administration, management, and operation of the Coast Guard Telecommunications System."

  United States. Coast Guard

  1999-09-07
• Chemical and Biological Warfare Threat: USAF Water Systems at Risk

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  Water and the systems that supply it are national critical infrastructures. Attack to deny or disrupt these systems could have catastrophic effects on the U.S. economy and military power. Water is particularly vulnerable to chemical or biological attack. Not limited to the "traditional" chemical weapons, an adversary has a plethora of cheap, ubiquitous and deadly chemicals on the worldwide market. Using an Internet search and $10,000, the adversary could build a biological fermentation capability, producing trillions of deadly bacteria that don't require missiles or bombs for delivery. The U.S. Air Force water supplies are particularly assailable by asymmetric attack. Institutional myopia renders water system vulnerability assessments disjointed and ineffective. Understanding this vulnerability requires systemic analysis. Probing notional water systems, this study identifies critical points, which if vulnerable could be targeted with chemical or biological weapons to functionally kill or neutralize USAF operations. Though water attacks are historically common, USAF conventional wisdom and official policy center on aerial chemical or biological attack. This study conclusively demonstrates the efficacy of chemical and biological weapons in drinking water. The author proposes four thrusts to improve force protection: comprehensive threat and risk assessment, focused water system vulnerability assessments, re-evaluation of the CW/BW conventional wisdom, and a review of Civil Engineering water system outsourcing and management practices.

  USAF Counterproliferation Center

  Hickman, Donald C.

  1999-09
• Strengthening Nonproliferation: Essential to Global Security

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  As the risk increases that terrorists may seek to acquire or use weapons of mass destruction (WMD), Berger says the Clinton administration is pursuing three key priorities: strengthening the nonproliferation regime, addressing pressing regional WMD threats, and bolstering defenses against the use of WMD. Berger is the National Security Adviser to President Clinton. Slowing the spread of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) has been a key priority for President Clinton. The reason why is clear: allowing more and more countries, including bitter regional rivals and even terrorist groups, to develop nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and allowing the development of more and more destructive weapons, would make the world a much more dangerous place. So the United States will continue to work hard to strengthen global nonproliferation agreements and efforts. First, we are moving aggressively to strengthen the nonproliferation regime, by which I mean the international consensus and the international agreements and structures aimed at curbing WMD and ballistic missiles. We also will work to strengthen other components of the nuclear nonproliferation regime, including the safeguards applied by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Our second set of priorities focuses on the most pressing regional proliferation challenges. We have a full and important agenda of arms control and nonproliferation issues to address with China. We will continue to work with Russia to strengthen its export control system and to take effective actions against companies and individuals who are violating Russian laws and putting personal gain over Russia's own national interests. On Iraq, we will maintain sanctions until Iraq fully complies with its commitments under the relevant UN Security Council resolutions, especially its obligation to eliminate its WMD programs entirely. Our third set of priorities recognizes that, despite our efforts to strengthen the international regime and resolve regional issues, we cannot prevent all forms of proliferation in all cases. Weapons of mass destruction already are out there in the hands of dangerous actors. So we must devote sufficient resources to develop defensive capabilities to protect people in the event these weapons are used.

  United States. Department of State

  Berger, Samuel R.

  1999-09
• Chemical-Biological Attack: Achilles Heel of the Air Expeditionary Force?

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  "The U.S. National Security Strategy calls for our armed forces to help shape the international environment, respond to threats and crises, and prepare now for an uncertain future. To assist in the execution of this strategy, the U.S. Air Force is developing a new operational entity, the Air Expeditionary Force. This force will be tailored to quickly respond to crises or conflicts at any point on the globe. Given its technological and materiel superiority, the force will have no conventional equal. However, to effectively accomplish its mission the Air Expeditionary Force must have minimal redundancy in personnel and equipment and be supported over extended distances by airlift. These characteristics make the force particularly vulnerable to an asymmetric attack by chemical and biological weapons. Despite formal international prohibitions against chemical-biological weapons, recent history has documented their use against civilian and military personnel with significant consequences." Currently, twenty-five nations are known to have chemical-biological weapons and it is presumed non-state actors, such as terrorists groups have acquired them as well. Air Force leadership must neither exaggerate nor trivialize the chemical-biological threat to the Air Expeditionary Force. This paper calls for an objective and ongoing analysis of the threat and appropriate organizational response, through the creation of an Air Expeditionary Force Chemical-Biological Threat Team. This multifunctional group would evaluate how the expeditionary forces are planned, organized, trained and equipped to deal with the chemical-biological threat. With this concerted approach, the Air Expeditionary Force should avert chemical-biological defeat and prove a formidable operational entity well into the 21st century."

  Air University (U.S.). Air War College

  Hepburn, Byron C.

  1999-09
• Semiannual Report on United States-Mexico Border Contingency Planning Activities - No. 4

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  This document features a report on the U.S./Mexico National Coordinators meeting and updates on Sister City contingency planning. "The purpose of the Semiannual Report on United States-Mexico Border Contingency Planning Activities is to consolidate information on U.S.-Mexico border joint response and contingency planning efforts by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Regions, border states, and sister cities in order to promote the exchange of information, communication, and coordination among these groups. The types of U.S. and bi-national activities presented in this report include efforts such as developing Sister City Plans, response exercises, training courses, and responses to actual hazardous material and environmental incidents. Essential documents, Web sites, and contact information also make this report a useful reference document."

  United States. Environmental Protection Agency

  1999-09
• Resources for Food Safety and Storage in Emergency Situations

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  "This publication contains resources and information for the general public and individuals who are educating the public about responses to emergency situations. The majority of the information focuses on food and water safety and storage, before, during and after natural disasters. A section of Internet Resources is provided. Many local public libraries offer internet connections for those who do not have home access. The last section of this publication includes resources for Y2K. While this is a particularly timely issue, information in these resources can be applied to other emergency situations beyond the year 2000. However, availability of these materials may be limited."

  Food and Nutrition Information Center (U.S.)

  1999-09
• Assessment of the U. S. Marine Transportation System: A Report to Congress

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  The U.S. Marine Transportation System (MTS) consists of waterways, ports and their intermodal connections, vessels, vehicles, and system users. Each component is a complex system within itself and is closely linked with the other components. It is primarily an aggregation of State, local, or privately owned facilities and private companies. As with the U.S. economy as a whole, decision making and investment are primarily driven by the marketplace. In addition, national, State, and local governments participate in the management, financing, and operation of the MTS. More than 1,000 harbor channels and 25,000 miles of inland, intracoastal, and coastal waterways in the United States serve over 300 ports, with more than 3,700 terminals that handle passenger and cargo movements. The waterways and ports link to 152,000 miles of rail, 460,000 miles of pipelines, and 45,000 miles of interstate highways. Vessels and vehicles transport goods and people through the system. The MTS also contains shipyards and repair facilities crucial to maritime activity. As the world's leading maritime and trading nation, the United States relies on an efficient and effective MTS to maintain its role as a global power. The MTS provides American businesses with competitive access to suppliers and markets in an increasingly global economy. The MTS transports people to work; provides them with recreation and vacation opportunities; puts food on their tables; and delivers many of the items they need in their professional and personal lives. Within the United States, the MTS provides a cost-effective means for moving major bulk commodities, such as grain, coal, and petroleum. It is a key element of State and local government economic development and job-creation efforts and the source of profits for private companies. With its vast resources and access, the MTS is an essential element in maintaining economic competitiveness and national security.

  United States. Department of Transportation

  1999-09
• Appropriate and Effective Use of Security Technologies in U.S. Schools: A Guide for Schools and Law Enforcement Agencies

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  This document provides basic guidelines to law enforcement agencies and school administrators and encourages their collaboration as they decide what, if any, security technologies should be considered as they develop safe school strategies. In the wake of recent high-profile school tragedies with multiple homicides, many of this Nation's communities have urged their school districts to incorporate security technology into their safety programs. This guide should help schools, in concert with their law enforcement partners, analyze their vulnerability to violence, theft, and vandalism, and suggest possible technologies to address these problems in an effective manner. This guide describes existing commercially available technologies and urges thoughtful consideration of not only the potential safety benefits that may accrue from their use but also the costs that schools may incur for capital investments, site modifications, additional staffing, training, and equipment maintenance and repair. Topic areas included in this guide are: security concepts and operational issues, video surveillance, weapons detection devices (walk-through and handheld metal detectors and x-ray baggage scanners), entry controls, and duress alarms.

  National Institute of Justice (U.S.)

  1999-09
• Sabotage at Nuclear Power Plants

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  This paper discusses emerging threats and current methods of choice for sabotage. Potential consequences of sabotage acts, including economic and political, not just those that may result in unacceptable radiological exposure to the public, are also discussed. Applicability of risk-assessment methods and mitigation techniques are also presented.

  United States. Department of Energy

  1999-08-24
• Chemical and Biological Defense: Coordination of Nonmedical Chemical and Biological R&D Programs, Report to Congressional Requesters

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  This report examines the coordination of federal R&D efforts to develop nonmedical technology related to chemical and biological defense. GAO further (1) identifies federal programs that conduct nonmedical chemical and biological defense-related research and development, and (2) describes the existing mechanisms for coordinating these programs.

  United States. General Accounting Office

  1999-08-16
• Chemical and Biological Defense: Program Planning and Evaluation Should Follow Results Act Framework

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  This report examines the extent to which the Defense Department (DoD) has applied the principles of the Results Act to the chemical and biological defense program, focusing on research, development, testing, and evaluation efforts that lead to new technologies and defensive capabilities.

  United States. General Accounting Office

  1999-08-10
• Common Ground: Study of One-Call Systems and Damage Prevention Best Practices

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  "The purpose of the Study was to identify and validate existing best practices performed in connection with preventing damage to underground facilities. The collected best practices are intended to be shared among stakeholders involved with and dependent upon the safe and reliable operation, maintenance, construction, and protection of underground facilities. These best practices contain validated experiences gained that can be further examined and evaluated for possible consideration and incorporation into state and private stakeholder underground facility damage prevention programs."

  United States. Office of Pipeline Safety

  1999-08
• Joint Force Quarterly: Summer 1999, Issue 22 [August 1999]

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  "NDU Press produces Joint Force Quarterly in concert with ongoing education and research at National Defense University in support of the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. JFQ is the Chairman's joint military and security studies journal designed to inform and educate national security professionals on joint and integrated operations; whole of government contributions to national security policy and strategy; homeland security; and developments in training and joint military education to better equip America's military and security apparatus to meet tomorrow's challenges while protecting freedom today."

  National Defense University. Institute for National Strategic Studies

  Murrey, Thomas, Jr.

  1999-08
• Media Interaction with the Public in Emergency Situations: Four Case Studies

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  "This report provides an analysis of media coverage of four major emergency situations in the United States and the impact of that coverage on the public. The situations analyzed are the Three Mile Island nuclear accident (1979), the Los Angeles riots (1992), the World Trade Center bombing (1993), and the Oklahoma City bombing (1995). Each study consists of a chronology of events followed by a discussion of the interaction of the media and the public in that particular situation. Emphasis is upon the initial hours or days of each event. Print and television coverage was analyzed in each study; radio coverage was analyzed in one instance. The conclusion discusses several themes that emerge from a comparison of the role of the media in these emergencies. Sources consulted appear in the bibliography at the end of the report."

  Library of Congress. Federal Research Division

  Berry, LaVerle Bennette, 1942-; Jones, Amanda; Powers, Terence

  1999-08
• How to Prevent Runaway Reactions, Case Study: Phenol-Formaldehyde Reaction Hazards

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  "EPA is issuing this Case Study as part of its ongoing effort to protect human health and the environment by preventing chemical accidents. Under CERCLA, section 104(e) and the Clean Air Act (CAA), EPA has authority to conduct chemical accident investigations. EPA is striving to learn the causes and contributing factors associated with chemical accidents to prevent their recurrence. Major chemical accidents cannot be prevented solely through command and control regulatory requirements, but by understanding the fundamental root causes, widely disseminating the lessons learned, and integrating them into safe operations."

  United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office

  1999-08
• NS/EP Implications of GPS Timing

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  The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based positioning and navigation system that is funded and operated by the United States Department of Defense. Although originally developed for use by the U.S. military, GPS now supports thousands of civilian users worldwide and is employed in a wide range of applications. This technical note focuses on the use of GPS for telecommunications network timing and synchronization. The following sections describe the GPS system, how GPS calculates and transmits its timing signals, and how GPS timing is used in networks. Lastly, potential National Security/Emergency Preparedness (NS/EP) implications are discussed.

  National Communications System (U.S.). Office of the Manager

  Brutt, LeeAnne

  1999-08
• Standards for Protection of Telecommunications Links

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  Public and Government attention has been focused not only on better methods of understanding stresses on public telecommunications networks, but also on protecting against these stresses. The development of new standards provides one method of understanding the issues of telecommunications stress. Likewise, these standards provide guidelines and data for building specifications to protect public telecommunications networks from stress threats.

  National Communications System (U.S.). Office of the Manager

  Bain, Greg

  1999-08
• Guidance for Auditing Risk Management Plans/Programs under Clean Air Act Section 112(r)

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  "This document provides guidance for implementing agencies that are required by the Risk Management Program regulation (40 CFR 68.220) to conduct audits. It is designed as a tool for auditors reviewing industry compliance with the Risk Management Program regulation. However, this guidance does not reflect all requirements that a stationary source must meet to be in compliance with the regulation."

  United States. Environmental Protection Agency

  1999-08
• Hurricane Georges Assessment: Review of Hurricane Evacuation Studies Utilization and Information Dissemination

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  "Before Hurricane Georges, a comprehensive hurricane evacuation study had been done for many of the impacted areas. Since Georges directly affected areas where previous study data were available, there was an opportunity to find out whether previous information collected was accurate, how well products were utilized from past studies, and what improvements could still be made. This report addresses information on behavioral characteristics of evacuees, public shelters, evacuation decisions and transportation clearance times."

  United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency; United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; United States. Army. Corps of Engineers

  1999-08
• Department of Defense: Military Assistance Provided at Branch Davidian Incident, Report to the Secretary of Defense, the Attorney General, and the Secretary of the Treasury, Report to the Secretary of Defense, the Attorney General, and the Secretary of the Treasury

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  "In 1993, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) received assistance from the U.S. military, including counterdrug program support, while investigating violations of federal firearms laws by members of an obscure sect, the Branch Davidians, and their leader, Vernon Howell (also known as David Koresh), in Waco, Texas. On February 28, 1993, as the ATF tried to serve warrants on the sect's compound, a gunfight erupted, idling and wounding agents and Davidians. A standoff ensued that soon involved the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The military provided support to the two federal law enforcement agencies (LEA) throughout the 51-day standoff, which ended April 19, 1993, when the compound was destroyed by fire. In August 1996, the House Committees on Government Reform and Oversight and on the Judiciary issued a report, 'Investigation into the Activities of Federal Law Enforcement Agencies Toward the Branch Davidians' (Report 104-749). The report recommended that we review certain aspects of the military assistance provided to the LEAs in this incident. We have reviewed the nature and extent of the assistance, including that from counterdrug programs, provided to these operations, as well as the counterdrug aspects of ATF's plans to serve a search warrant at the Davidian compound. We pursued three specific objectives: Determine whether the ATF's requests for support from military counterdrug programs met requirements for authorizing that support; Identify the measures ATF took to deal with any drug activity it might find during its warrant service, and determine whether those measures were appropriate for such operations where a methamphetamine laboratory might be encountered. Account for the types, costs, and reimbursements of all military support, including that from counterdrug programs, provided to the ATF and the FBI."

  United States. General Accounting Office

  1999-08
• Guidelines for Incident Commander's Use of Firefighter Protective Ensemble (FFPE) with Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for Rescue Operations During a Terrorist Chemical Agent Incident

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  "This report covers Man In Simulant Testing (MIST) of both new and used firefighter turnout gear. This testing examined how well turnout gear with SCBA protects the firefighter against vapor adsorption at the skin. Firefighters were exposed, while wearing turnout gear with SCBA, to a chemical agent simulant (methyl salicylate) to measure the Physiological Protective Dosage Factor (PPDF). An assessment was conducted using the measured PPDFs to determine quick rescue times for known living victims. The basic result is standard turnout gear with SCBA provides a first with sufficient protection from nerve agent vapor hazards inside interior or downwind areas of the hot zone to allow 30 minutes rescue time for known live victims."

  U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command

  1999-08
• Confrontation Analysis: How to Win Operations Other Than War

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  "This book presents a simple idea. A Peace Operations campaign (or Operation Other Than War) should be seen as a linked sequence of confrontations--in contrast to a traditional, warfighting campaign, which is a linked sequence of battles. The objective in each confrontation is to bring about certain 'compliant' behavior on the part of other parties, until in the end the campaign objective is reached. This is a state of sufficient compliance to enable the military to leave the theater."

  Command and Control Research Program (U.S.)

  Howard, Nigel.

  1999-08
• Video Called 'Drill Today: Survive Tomorrow' and a Study of Coalition Building and Alternative Funding

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  "It was a problem that there were no video-based programs currently being used to teach fire and tornado drill procedures in the elementary schools in Irondale, Alabama. The research questions were as follows: (a) What video-based programs were available? (b) Was funding a problem for principals in obtaining a video-based program that teaches fire and tornado drill procedures? (c) Could an alternative funding model be used to create a cost- effective, video-based fire and tornado drill procedure program. The answers to these questions all helped to develop a cost-effective and alternatively funded video-based program that teaches fire and tornado drill procedures in the elementary schools of Irondale, Alabama. Descriptive research surveys indicated that there were no video-based programs currently being utilized and that funding was the primary reason. The surveys also made evident the need for such a video. The final question explored alternative funding in a problem-solving model to determine if a video could be produced. Through action research, a professional quality video on fire and tornado drills was created, copied, and sent to all primary educational schools in Alabama utilizing a new funding model. Alternative funding, building coalitions, the utilization of video media, need validation, and creative exploration were all recommended in this project."

  National Fire Academy

  Lynch, Joe L.

  1999-08
• Transition into Disaster Worker Stress Auditing: Orlando Moves to the Future

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  "This research project analyzed the factors that make up a disaster stress audit. The problem was that the Orlando Fire Department does not provide for assessing the stress levels of emergency workers during extended disaster operations. The purpose of the research project was to develop a disaster stress audit guideline to monitor the signs, symptoms, and behaviors exhibited by emergency workers effected by the stress of disaster operations. This research employed action research (a) to determine what items should be included in a stress audit, (b) what training should be provided to potential sector officers that will use the stress audit, (c) what is the current mind set among emergency workers relating to their susceptibility to stress during disaster operations, (d) what criteria should be used for not allowing an emergency worker to return to disaster operations, (e) what type of relationship should be initiated with the mental health community for support prior to a disaster striking a community, and (f) is there an acceptance of psychological duty related injury with the more commonly known and accepted forms of duty related injury? The principle procedure employed was review of published materials and a survey. Data were compiled in graphic form to facilitate a comparison of published materials and contemporary fire department applications of appraising stress in emergency workers. The major findings of this research were that few fire departments currently incorporate a stress audit into their disaster operations. Principle among those factors was that only 2.47% of surveyed departments even have a formal process in place for evaluating the stress in their emergency workers."

  National Fire Academy

  Sorenson, Robert L.

  1999-08