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Rethinking Militias: Recognizing the Potential Role of Militia Groups in Nation-Building
"Recent media, political, and military consideration regarding the use of militias has been almost totally negative. This conceptual bias against militias is somewhat misguided, and can lead to disastrously counterproductive situations. Conceivably, militias can play a role in building a functioning state, and can support immediate and long-term U.S. and host nation government efforts in these situations. Stability, Security, Transition, and Reconstruction (SSTR) has become a mainstay of current U.S. strategy, but little effort is dedicated to developing options that deal specifically with the inclusion of irregular forces outside the control of a central government. This thesis seeks to counter the conceptual bias against militia groups, and provides a framework for analyzing militias' potential to assist with the establishment of governance in weak and failing states. Second, it analyzes a series of examples and arrays them along a spectrum that can be used to better define militias' characteristics and intents. The third aim of this thesis is to offer a set of strategy options the U.S. might apply in its efforts to deal with militias in its nation-building efforts."
Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)
Hodgson, Terry L.; Thomas, Glenn R.
2007-06
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Combatting Terrorism, Rebel Groups, and Armed Militia in the Face of Economic Prosperity Opportunities
From the thesis abstract: "Kenya, Ethiopia, and South Sudan recently embarked on a $25 billion oil production project in Lamu, Kenya. Otherwise known as the Lamu-South-Sudan-Ethiopia-Transport-Corridor (LAPSSET) project, it is expected to bring these nations and others throughout East Africa out of poverty and transform their social status from economic and social despair to economic prosperity. The LAPSSET project will include a 32 berth mega port, a railway, an oil pipeline, a highway, and a fiber optic network. They key component to the entire project is the oil pipeline. But the construction and ultimate uninterrupted use of the oil pipeline is facing many security threats. Al-Shabaab in Somalia, armed rebel groups, and armed militia in South Sudan pose the greatest security challenges to the oil pipeline. This threat directly opposes US AFRICOM COMMAND's (US AFRICOM) strategic and operational goals of security and stability throughout the East African region. Consequently, US AFRICOM must immediately engage these nations to help put in place security measures to mitigate attack from these groups."
Naval War College (U.S.). Joint Military Operations Department
Douglas, Christopher
2012-05-04
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Against All Enemies Foreign and Domestic
From the thesis abstract: "As the military moves into the 21st century its focus is outward to meet a foreign threat. The growing number of militias and racial extremist in this country, that are advocating violence and the overthrow of our government, will demand that in the 21st century the military will have to look inward to meet a domestic threat. [... The 1990's] have seen a large increase in the number of Militias, Patriot movements, and religiously founded extremist, both black and white, in America. It is estimated that there are over 441 militias and 368 Patriot groups, involving by some accounts, up to five million people. The main drive behind these movements has been a growing dissatisfaction with how our government is being run and economic hardship. Most of the Militias have formed because of the fear that the United States government is being taken over by the United Nations under the auspices of the 'new world order.' The members of the militia feel they must stand up their armies and stop the take over, to protect our country. Two recent events have fueled the fires of militia mania. They are: the stand off at Ruby Ridge, Idaho and the attack on the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas. Unfortunately the threats of violence are no longer just talk as shown by the Oklahoma City bombing, and the increase of militia involvement in crime to support their cause."
Marine Corps Command and Staff College (U.S.)
Pulsifer, Benjamin F.
1997
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Irregular Forces in Counterinsurgency Operations: Their Roles and Considerations
From the thesis abstract: "The purpose of this monograph is to determine the ideal practices for militias and irregular forces in counterinsurgency operations. This study specifically addresses those groups organized by a legitimate sponsor such as the Host Nation or one of its partners and takes note to exclude criminal organizations that seek to terrorize the government or its population to gain concessions. As part of its study, this paper provides a basic outline of the goals of insurgent and counterinsurgent doctrine. It uses Mao Tse-tung as a source for universal insurgent goals and Revolutionary Insurgencies and David Galula for Nationalist Insurgencies (Galula refers to them as Bourgeois-Nationalist). Galula's differentiation is unique because it attempts to identify situations and expected insurgents actions for each type of insurgency though insurgencies may include characteristics of both models. This study also refers to US doctrine to provide an understanding of how the US expects to fight insurgencies. This monograph then establishes a baseline of criteria for militia tasks and considerations that it subsequently investigates using historical examples of three conflicts: The Malayan Emergency, The US in the Vietnam War, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. As in any military operation, commanders must balance a myriad of criteria that weigh on possible alternative solutions. In the employment of irregular forces, a leader must consider how using locally hired indigenous forces affect operations. He should be aware of how the roles of such unconventional forces affect the militias themselves, how the Host Nation or its defense forces react to them, and possible US government and popular reactions. While verifying that militias are effective in counterinsurgent operations for basic security and defense related tasks, providing intelligence, population control, and permit for conventional forces to direct actions against the insurgents, this paper revealed that irregulars have the potential for additional contributions. With training and supervision, surrogates can engage in short duration offensive operations. Militias also provide a means for the government to garner local support against the insurgency through inclusion. They can facilitate reconciliation with disaffected groups and provide a unifying force for these groups in politics."
U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. School of Advanced Military Studies
Rieper, William R.
2010-05-10
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Less-than-Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement Signed in Burma [October 15, 2015]
From the Document: "Eight ethnic groups and representatives of Burma's government signed a ceasefire agreement on October 15, possibly moving the country one step closer to ending its six decade long civil war (see text box). However, more than a dozen ethnic groups did not sign the agreement, including most of those actively fighting with the government's army, the Tatmadaw, leaving the agreement well short of the nationwide ceasefire President Thein Sein sought to complete before parliamentary elections scheduled for November 8, 2015. Each of the eight ethnic groups had agreed to separate ceasefire agreements with the Thein Sein government. Two other ethnic groups, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Khaplang (NSCN-K) and the United Wa State Army (UWSA), did not participate in the negotiations and had previously announced that they had no intention of signing the ceasefire agreement. Under the terms of the agreement, a political dialogue is to begin with 90 days (January 13, 2016) to discuss terms for the formation of a federal government and a peace agreement. In no more than 14 days (October 29), the parties to the agreement are to meet to define a timeline to abide by a mutually binding military code of conduct. Given the limited number of ethnic groups who signed the agreement, however, it is unclear if these discussions will occur. The ceasefire agreement resolves many issues underlying the nation's long-standing civil war, but does not address some of the more controversial issues, such as the terms of post-ceasefire political dialogue, the status of the ethnic militias, and the ceasefire's code of conduct for the Tatmadaw and the ethnic militias."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Martin, Michael F.
2015-10-15
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Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President: Re: Treaties and Laws Applicable to the Conflict in Afghanistan and to the Treatment of Persons Captured by U.S. Armed Forces in that Conflict [November 30, 2001]
"In the course of the current military effort to combat international terrorism, including the present campaign in Afghanistan against the al Qaeda terrorist organization and the Taliban militia, it is foreseeable that U.S. military forces will need to detain foreign nationals in the course of conducting military operations. You have asked for our Office's views on several questions concerning the application of certain treaties, domestic federal law, and customary international law to the armed conflict in Afghanistan. In particular, you have asked about the applicability of the laws of armed conflict to the conduct of the U.S. Armed Forces towards captured members of the al Qaeda terrorist group and of the Taliban militia, which provides the former with sanctuary in Afghanistan. We conclude that these treaties do not protect the al Qaeda organization, which as a non-State actor cannot be a party to the international agreements governing war. We further conclude that the President has reasonable grounds to find that these treaties do not apply to the Taliban militia. This memorandum expresses no view as to whether the President should decide, as a matter of policy, that the U.S. Armed Forces should adhere to the standards of conduct in those treaties in the Afghanistan conflict, particularly with respect to the treatment of prisoners."
United States. Department of Justice. Office of Legal Counsel
Yoo, John; Delahunty, Robert J.
2001-11-30
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Viewpoint: Pouring More Arms into Iraq Risks Regional Conflagration
"Anyone following the casualty reports out of Iraq over the last six months will notice that the conflict is becoming steadily more deadly for both Iraqi civilians and the U.S. military. The increase in casualties is in part the result of the upsurge in sectarian violence in Baghdad and other cities, where American troops are increasingly vulnerable to guerrilla tactics favored by the insurgents and the anti-U.S. Shiite militias. But there is another reason why more U.S. military personnel are being killed and maimed: The insurgents and militias are fielding a new array of dangerous conventional weapons. While the Sunni insurgents mostly continue to use the leftover equipment and ammunition from Saddam Hussein's ammunition dumps, the Shiite militias are seeing their weapons upgraded and improved courtesy of Tehran and Moscow. There are even rumors of Iranian arms deliveries to Sunni insurgent groups."
Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Contemporary Conflict
Russell, James
2007-03
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State-Building Challenges in a Post-Revolution Libya
"A peaceful transition to a new form of government in Libya is of vital importance not only to the people of Libya, but to neighboring countries--and to security in the broad sense much farther afield. Yet, at the time of this writing, the new interim leadership remains fragile, with limited capacity and sovereignty, and the inability to enforce security is still a critical challenge. There is a risk of conditions being created that could lead to Libya becoming a fragile or indeed a failed state. Despite the mitigation of the threat from supporters of the old regime, the interim government has no monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. The security risks of Libya's uncontrolled armed militias are not restricted to within national borders. By jeopardizing state-building efforts, clashes between militias or between militias and government authorities threaten to undermine the security of neighboring countries and the international community. Risks include renewed waves of refugee flows to Tunisia, Egypt, and across the Mediterranean to Italy and beyond, and continuing disruption to oil production, which will once again deprive the international market of Libyan oil and harm the economic interests of U.S. and European companies. Furthermore, the current lack of a capable national army leaves Libya an open playing field to be exploited by international criminal or terrorist groups active in the region."
Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute
El-Katiri, Mohammed
2012-10
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Libya and U.S. Policy [Updated February 12, 2021]
From the Document: "Ten years after a 2011 uprising toppled longtime authoritarian leader Muammar al Qadhafi, Libya has yet to make a transition to stable governing arrangements. Militias, local leaders, and coalitions of national figures backed by competing foreign patrons have remained the most powerful arbiters of public affairs. Conflict re-erupted in Libya in April 2019, when a coalition of armed groups led by Qadhafi-era military defector Khalifa Haftar known as the Libyan National Army movement (LNA, in Arabic: 'Libyan Arab Armed Forces,' LAAF) leveraged support from Russia, the United Arab Emirates, and Egypt to attempt to seize the capital, Tripoli, from the interim Government of National Accord (GNA) and local militias. With Turkish military support, the GNA and western Libyan militias forced the LNA to withdraw. Libya has remained divided since, with opposing forces separated by a line of control west of Sirte."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2021-02-12
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Countering the Lord's Resistance Army in Central Africa
"The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) is one of Africa's most brutal militia forces. It has plagued Central Africa, particularly northern Uganda, for over two decades. The group's tactics provide textbook examples of war crimes and crimes against humanity. When attacking civilians, the LRA instills fear by selecting random individuals for brutal executions. Children are abducted to serve as porters, sex slaves, and new militia. In order to indoctrinate child soldiers, young abductees are routinely forced to kill their own family members and other children, or be murdered themselves. Anyone caught trying to escape from the LRA is summarily executed. By contrast with other African rebel groups, which occasionally adopt such brutal tactics, the LRA has conducted such atrocities on a systematic and prolonged basis. With intelligence and operational planning support from the United States, in December 2008, the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) launched Operation Lightning Thunder to attack LRA bases in the Garamba National Park of northeastern Congo, where the LRA had been located since 2005. The initial attack was intended to overwhelm the LRA and decapitate its leadership with a combination of airborne assaults and ground troop movements. However, the top LRA leadership survived this initial attack, and LRA forces separated into small groups of dozens of fighters."
National Defense University. Institute for National Strategic Studies
Le Sage, Andre
2011-07
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Armed Conflict in Syria: U.S. and International Response [April 22, 2013]
"The popular-uprising-turned-armed-rebellion in Syria has entered its third year, and seems poised to continue, with the government and a bewildering array of militias locked in a bloody struggle of attrition. U.S. officials and many analysts believe that Asad and his supporters will ultimately be forced from power, but few offer specific, credible timetables for a resolution to the crisis. Opposition forces are formidable, but forces loyal to President Bashar al Asad continue to resist, using air strikes, artillery, and pro-government militias in punishing counterattacks. U.S. officials believe that the capacity of government forces is eroding but also believe that fighting would likely continue even if opposition groups achieve their objective of toppling Asad. Some members of the Sunni Arab majority and of ethnic and sectarian minority groups view the conflict in communal, zero-sum terms. Many observers worry that a further escalation in fighting or swift regime change could jeopardize the security of chemical and conventional weapons stockpiles, threaten minority groups, or lead to wider civil or regional conflict. […] After two years of unrest and violence, the central question for policy makers remains how best to bring the conflict in Syria to a close before the crisis consigns the region to one of several destructive and destabilizing scenarios. The human toll of the fighting, and the resulting political, ethnic, and sectarian polarization, all but guarantee that political, security, humanitarian, and economic challenges will outlast Asad and keep Syria on the U.S. agenda for years to come."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2013-04-22
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Coercive Engagement: A Security Analysis of Iranian Support to Iraqi Shia Militias
"According to the US Air Force Posture Statement 2008, at any given moment the USAF has more than 26,000 Airmen deployed to fight the global war on terrorism. Of those deployed, over 6,200 directly support the land component commander by filling 'in lieu of' taskings with the US Army. While deployed to the Central Command area of responsibility, our Airmen face a growing tactical threat from increasingly hostile and deadly attacks from Iraqi Shia militia groups such as the Mahdi Army and the Badr Brigade. These groups are directly and indirectly supported by Iran. Iran's support to the Shia militias in Iraq has both tactical- and strategic-level implications to US security policy. This article addresses the issue in earnest and provides the reader with increased knowledge and understanding of this complex relationship in addition to providing sound policy prescriptions to deal with this growing security threat. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, as the Berlin Wall and the Soviet Union were crumbling, the United States found itself in the unique position of being a lone superpower in an international system that was quickly shifting from bipolarity to unipolarity. This did not mean, however, that US preeminence would be forever guaranteed, and events in the 1990s and the early years of the new millennium brought new security challenges as the country faced the growing threat of terrorism from abroad. Today, the United States finds itself engaged in the Middle East as never before, fighting dual wars in Afghanistan and Iraq while simultaneously attempting to maintain its unipolar status in the international system."
Air University (U.S.). Press
Forrest, Christopher
2009
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [April 29, 2011]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the government of Uganda. In November 2008, United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon appointed former Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo as his envoy to help broker a peace agreement to end the crisis in eastern Congo. Since his appointment, Obasanjo has met with Congolese President Joseph Kabila, General Nkunda, Rwandan President Paul Kagame, and other officials in the region. The parties have agreed to participate in a U.N.-led peace initiative. The crisis in eastern Congo has displaced an estimated 2.1 million Congolese, according to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Other regions of Congo have also been affected by sporadic violence."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-04-29
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [June 8, 2011]
"Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the government of Uganda. […] The United States has been actively engaged in facilitating the Tripartite Plus talks among the four key players in the Great Lakes region: Rwanda, DRC, Burundi, and Uganda. The Tripartite Plus process has led to a number of agreements over the past several years, including the creation of a Joint Verification Mechanism (JVM) to address cross-border issues. The United States provided $205.1 million in FY2008 and $111.6 million in FY2009. The DRC received a total of $296.5 million in FY2009 and an estimated $183 million in FY2010. The Obama Administration has requested $213.2 million for FY2011 and $230.8 million for FY2012."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-06-08
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [October 8, 2010]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the government of Uganda."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2010-10-08
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [February 17, 2011]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the government of Uganda. […] The United States has been actively engaged in facilitating the Tripartite Plus talks among the four key players in the Great Lakes region: Rwanda, DRC, Burundi, and Uganda. The Tripartite Plus process has led to a number of agreements over the past several years, including the creation of a Joint Verification Mechanism (JVM) to address cross-border issues. The United States provided $205.1 million in FY2008 and $111.6 million in FY2009. The DRC received a total of $296.5 million in FY2009 and an estimated $183 million in FY2010. The Obama Administration has requested $213.2 million for FY2011."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-02-17
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Armed Conflict in Syria: U.S. and International Response [June 14, 2013]
"The popular-uprising-turned-armed-rebellion in Syria is in its third year, and seems poised to continue, with the government and a bewildering array of militias locked in a bloody struggle of attrition. The Obama Administration has signaled a pending expansion of U.S. civilian and military assistance to the opposition in the wake of the U.S. intelligence community's conclusion that President Bashar al Asad's forces used chemical weapons in limited attacks in recent months. U.S. officials and many analysts have asserted that President Asad and his supporters will be forced from power, but few offer specific, credible timetables for a resolution to the crisis. Further escalation in fighting or swift regime change could jeopardize the security of chemical and conventional weapons stockpiles, threaten minority groups, or lead to wider regional conflict. Opposition forces are formidable, but regime forces, backed by Hezbollah fighters and Iranian and Russian material support, have initiated successful tactical counteroffensives in recent weeks. The Syrian military continues to use air strikes, artillery, and pro-government militias in punishing attacks on areas where rebels operate. Some members of Syria's Sunni Arab majority and of ethnic and sectarian minority groups view the conflict in communal, zero-sum terms. U.S. officials believe that fighting would likely continue even if Asad were toppled."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2013-06-14
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Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights [October 29, 2014]
"Since the 2011 U.S. military withdrawal from Iraq, sectarian and ethnic divisions have widened, fueling a major challenge to Iraq's stability and to Iraq's non-Muslim minority communities. Many of Iraq's Sunni Arabs have sided with radical Sunni Islamist insurgents as a means to reduce Shiite political domination. Iraq's Kurds have been separately embroiled in political disputes with Baghdad over territorial, political, and economic issues, particularly their intent to separately export large volumes of oil produced in the Kurdish region. The political rifts--which were contained by the U.S. military presence but escalated after late 2011--erupted in December 2013 into a sustained uprising led by the extremist group Islamic State, formerly known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The group and its allies took control of several cities in Anbar Province in early 2014 and captured Mosul and several other mostly Sunni cities in June 2014, accompanied by a partial collapse of the Iraqi Security Forces (ISF). […] The ISF collapse enabled the Kurds to seize control of the long-coveted city of Kirkuk, positioning the Kurds to break away from Iraq entirely were they to decide to do so. And, the crisis has provoked the revival of Shiite militia forces, politically aligned not only with dominant Shiite factions in Iraq but also with Iran. These forces have helped defend Baghdad and other areas to compensate for the weakness of the ISF, but the militias have also caused many Sunnis to see the Islamic State as a more favorable ally than the Iraqi government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2014-10-29
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [June 4, 2010]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past fourteen years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the Government of Uganda."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2010-06-04
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [February 4, 2010]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past fourteen years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the Government of Uganda."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2010-02-04
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Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [December 3, 2008]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past fourteen years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the Government of Uganda."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2008-12-03
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Libya and U.S. Policy [Updated August 3, 2020]
"Major conflict erupted in Libya in April 2019, when the 'Libyan National Army'/'Libyan Arab Armed Forces' (LNA/LAAF) movement--a coalition of armed groups led by Khalifa Haftar--launched a bid to seize the capital, Tripoli, from militias and the internationally recognized Government of National Accord (GNA). Fighters in western Libya rallied with Turkish military support to blunt the LNA's advance, and Haftar's forces withdrew from northwestern Libya in June 2020. The LNA and its local partners control much of Libya's territory and key oil production and export infrastructure. The GNA and anti-LNA groups control Tripoli and the western coast and seek to assert control over the entire country. Southern Libya is marginalized and faces threats from criminals, rival ethnic militias, and terrorists. The U.S. government supports a ceasefire, but the rival coalitions are preparing for more fighting in central Libya."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2020-08-03
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CTC Sentinel [August 2019]
This August 2019 issue of the U.S. Military Academy's Combating Terrorism Center (CTC) Sentinel features an article covering the increasing presence of pro-Iranian militias in Iraq and Syria titled "Iran's Expanding Militia Army in Iraq: The New Special Groups," by Michael Knights. Other reports include: "A View from the CT [counterterrorism] Foxhole: Suzanne Raine, Former Head of the United Kingdom's Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre" by Raffaello Pantucci; "Western Balkans Foreign Fighters and Homegrown Jihadis: Trends and Implications," by Adrian Shtuni; "Returnee Foreign Fighters from Syria and Iraq: The Kosovan Experience," by Kujtim Bytyqi and Sam Mullins; and "Maduro's Revolutionary Guards: The Rise of Paramilitarism in Venezuela" by Ross Dayton.
Combating Terrorism Center (U.S.)
2019-08
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America's Southern Front: Immigration, Homeland Security, and the Border Fencing Debate
"They call themselves the 'Minutemen,' named after the famed volunteer militia in the American colonies that started an armed rebellion against British rule two centuries ago, resulting in America's independence. But the mission of today's Minutemen is not to liberate occupied territory from colonial rule, or plant the seeds of democracy across new frontiers-but rather to prevent the flow of illegal immigrants across the U.S.-Mexican frontier, many of whom are pursuing the very same dream of America that inspired the original Minuteman. Like their namesake, however, they are a group of civilian volunteers, a contemporary militia that has pledged to defend the U.S. border from foreign infiltration, a task they believe the U.S. government has not fulfilled."
Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Contemporary Conflict
Zellen, Barry
2006-05
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Private Militias: The Cancer of the American Society
"Private Militias and various other right-wing extremist groups pose a disturbing threat to the American public. These organizations share such common beliefs as racial purity, anti-Semitism, anti-abortion, opposition to taxation and pro individual rights. However, their biggest beliefs are strong 2nd amendment rights and intense hatred and distrust of the federal government. Most militias, and the members therein, do not pose a threat of terrorist-style violence, but there is a small but active segment (the radical fringe) that seeks to convey their message through violence. Newly established doctrine within the movement has permitted followers to fuse hate with conspiracy theories and the widespread distrust of the federal government."
Marine Corps Command and Staff College (U.S.)
Domingue, Henry J., Jr.
2001-04-13
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Serial No. 115-64: Iranian Backed Militias: Destabilizing the Middle East, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifteenth Congress, First Session, October 4, 2017
This is the October 4, 2017 hearing on "Iranian Backed Militias: Destabilizing the Middle East" held before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade of the Committee on Foreign Affairs. From the opening statement of Ted Poe: "The Middle East continues to pose some of the biggest challenges to United States national security. Where there is a threat to our interests in the region we can be sure that Iran and its proxy forces and militias are somewhere in the neighborhood. [...] Our troops and Foreign Service officers and intelligence personnel who are trying to help Iraqis, Syrians, and Kurds fight ISIS [Islamic State of Iraq and Syria] have been repeatedly threatened by Iran's many opportunities in Iraq and Syria. Opposition to dangerous Iranian expansionism and support for terrorism is a bipartisan concern. Congress can lead further by developing a strategy to counter all of Iran's proxies. There is more at stake than just surrendering the region to Iran. If we want to defeat ISIS and defend allies like Israel, we must stop the growth of Iranian-backed groups and their destabilizing behavior. Iran's mobs have gone unchallenged. We are here today to find out from our four experts what the U.S. policy is toward all of this chaos and what it should be doing in the future." Statements, Letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Michael Knights, Aram Nerguizian, Kenneth Pollack, and Melissa Dalton.
United States. Government Publishing Office
2017
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DEA Administrator Testifies on Taliban and Drug Trafficking
This document contains the prepared text of the head of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Asa Hutchinson's testimony on October 3, 2001 at a congressional committee hearing on the connection between drug trafficking and international terrorist organizations. In this testimony, Hutchison says the Taliban has institutionalized drug trade and drug trafficking is the primary source of income for Afghanistan and its ruling Taliban militia. In 2000, Afghanistan produced more than 70 percent of the world's supply of illicit opium. Hutchinson said the Taliban, which controls 90 percent of Afghan territory, has institutionalized its involvement in the drug trade through taxation of opium poppy production. The ruling militia group issued a decree last year banning poppy cultivation, but Hutchinson said opium availability has not declined and the price has increased. He deduces from these trends that the Taliban is controlling a hoarded supply of opium in order to drive up the price while it acts at the same time to respond to international pressure to crack down on the illicit drug trade.
United States. Department of State
2001-10-03
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Countering the Hidden Hand: A Study of Iranian Influence in Iraq
From the thesis abstract: "The purpose of this thesis is to illuminate the pathways of Iranian influence in Iraq in order to provide U.S. decision makers with a possible strategy to counter Iran's malignant influence there. By using a combination of social network analysis and social movement theory, this study illuminates the network of actors fighting Daesh in Iraq by first analyzing the network to map Iran's influence channels and identify macro- and micro-level brokerage within the network. Using a social-movement focused approach, this study then identifies a candidate group for mobilization. Study of the network reveals that Iranian influence is exerted via its sponsored Shi'a militias and by conducting bloc recruitment of tribal militias. To counter this, the Jubouri tribal confederation located in Salahuddin Province offers high potential for mobilization under U.S. sponsorship that could be used to combat Iranian influence."
Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)
O'Connor, Patrick R.
2015-12
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Democratic Republic of the Congo: Peace Process and Current Developments [October 17, 2011]
"In October 2008, the forces of the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP), under the command of General Laurent Nkunda, launched a major offensive against the Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated in large numbers. Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia used eastern Congo as a safe haven and carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. […] The DRC [Democratic Republic of Congo] received a total of $296.5 million in FY2009, $282.6 million in FY2010, and $215.9 million in FY2011. The Obama Administration has requested $230.8 million for FY2012. In late July 2010, President Obama signed into law the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (P.L. 111-203). The 2,300-page legislation contains an amendment on Congo Conflict Minerals. The law requires that American companies disclose what kind of measures they have taken to ensure that minerals imported from Congo do not contain 'conflict minerals.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2011-10-17
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Lebanese Hezbollah [Updated June 22, 2018]
From the Overview: "Hezbollah ('Party of God') is an Iran-backed Lebanese Shi'a militia and U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO). Formed in 1982, in the wake of the Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon, the group has described itself as the leader of Islamic resistance to Israel and has conducted numerous attacks against Israeli and Western targets. Hezbollah currently operates regionally as a militia force, while also playing a powerful role as a Lebanese political party and provider of social services."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2018-06-22
