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• Defender Europe 20 Military Exercise, Historical (REFORGER) Exercises, and U.S. Force Posture in Europe [January 14, 2020]

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  From the Document: "On October 7, 2019, the U.S. Army announced it would conduct the largest U.S.-based exercise of forces deploying to Europe in the past 25 years: Defender Europe 20. While some have compared it to annual Cold War-era REFORGER [Return of Forces to Germany] military exercises, the Army suggests that while similar, Defender Europe 20 will be a more complex exercise than historical REFORGER exercises in terms of logistics, multinational command and control, and multidomain operations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Feickert, Andrew; McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-01-14
• Defense Primer: The Department of Defense [Updated December 20, 2018]

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  Form the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) was established after World War II through the 1947 National Security Act. At the time, some, including President Truman, took the view that the different components of the U.S. military had been insufficiently integrated to wage World War II effectively. The intention of the 1947 Act was therefore to create, for the first time, an integrated institution that combined the Departments of War and Navy, and to establish a policy architecture for overseeing the newly reorganized military apparatus. Over time, DOD has grown into one of the largest bureaucracies in the world, comprising over 3 million employees stationed across the United States and around the globe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2018-12-20
• Defense Primer: The Department of Defense [Updated January 24, 2020]

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  From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) was established after World War II through the 1947 National Security Act. At the time, some, including President Truman, took the view that the different components of the U.S. military had been insufficiently integrated to wage World War II effectively. The intention of the 1947 Act was therefore to create, for the first time, an integrated institution that combined the Departments of War and Navy, and to establish a policy architecture for overseeing the newly reorganized military apparatus. Over time, DOD has grown into one of the largest bureaucracies in the world, comprising over 3 million employees stationed across the United States and around the globe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-01-24
• Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [Updated January 24, 2020]

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  From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-01-24
• Fact Sheet: FY2017 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) DOD Reform Proposals [May 18, 2017]

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  "This fact sheet is intended to offer Members information on extant Department of Defense (DOD) reform proposals being considered during the FY2017 National Defense Authorization Act debates. As such, it includes key provisions incorporated in H.R. 4909, the FY2017 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) reported by the House Armed Services Committee on May 4, 2016 (H.Rept. 114-537), and S. 2943, the FY2017 National Defense Authorization Act reported by the Senate Armed Services Committee on May 18, 2016 (S.Rept. 114-255). Wherever possible, it also includes the Administration's views. For more information on the defense reform debates, see CRS Report R44474, Goldwater-Nichols at 30: Defense Reform and Issues for Congress, by Kathleen J. McInnis."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2017-05-18
• Strategic Competition and Foreign Policy: What is 'Political Warfare'? [March 8, 2019]

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  From the Document: "In recent years, scholars have formed a consensus around the notion that the United States has reentered an international strategic competition with other great powers, notably Russia and China. This great power competition has political, economic and military dimensions, with potentially far-reaching implications for U.S. foreign and national security policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; Weiss, Martin A.

  2019-03-08
• Toward the Creation of a U.S. 'Space Force' [August 16, 2018]

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  "For over two decades, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) and others have found that fragmentation and overlap in national security space acquisition management and oversight have contributed to program delays and cancellations, cost increases, and inefficient operations. Congress has attempted numerous organizational and acquisition reforms to address these problems. In the view of many observers, these efforts have generally been unsuccessful. In addition to these perceived managerial deficits, Congress has more recently expressed concern over the slow pace with which the Department of Defense (DOD) and the Air Force have addressed the growing threat to U.S. national security in space from adversaries, particularly Russia and China, and to a lesser extent North Korea and Iran. Some in the military and elsewhere now increasingly refer to space as a 'warfighting domain'; once seen as peaceful and uncontested, space is now viewed as crowded and adversarial."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Elsea, Jennifer; Kapp, Lawrence; McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2018-08-16
• Trump Administration Changes to the National Security Council: Frequently Asked Questions [January 30, 2017]

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  "On January 28, 2017, the Trump Administration issued National Security Presidential Memorandum (NSPM) 2: Organization of the National Security Council and the Homeland Security Council. The memorandum details how the executive branch intends to manage and coordinate national and homeland security issues among relevant departments and agencies. In keeping with the practices of prior administrations, the White House issued the memorandum early in its tenure. Since the memorandum was signed, some media reports have incorrectly characterized the manner in which the Trump administration appears to be organizing itself to manage national security matters. These FAQs are intended to clarify the terms and structures associated with the National Security Council (NSC)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; Rollins, John

  2017-01-30
• Defense Primer: The Department of Defense [December 13, 2016]

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  From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) was established after World War II through the 1947 National Security Act. At the time, some, including President Truman, took the view that the different components of the U.S. military had been insufficiently integrated to wage World War II effectively. The intention of the 1947 Act was therefore to create, for the first time, an integrated institution that combined the Departments of War and Navy, and to establish a policy architecture for overseeing the newly reorganized military apparatus. Over time, DOD has grown into one of the largest bureaucracies in the world, comprising over 3 million employees stationed across the United States and around the globe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2016-12-13
• 2018 National Defense Strategy [February 5, 2018]

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  "On January 19, 2018, Secretary of Defense Mattis released the unclassified summary of the Department of Defense's (DOD) first congressionally mandated National Defense Strategy (NDS). In addition to stating DOD's approach to contending with current and emerging national security challenges, the NDS is also intended to articulate the overall strategic rationale for programs and priorities contained within the FY2019-FY2023 budget requests. Overall, the document maintains that the strategic environment in which the United States must operate is one characterized by the erosion of the rules-based international order, which has produced a degree of strategic complexity and volatility not seen 'in recent memory' (p. 1). As a result, the document argues, the United States must bolster its competitive military advantage--which the NDS sees as having eroded in recent decades--relative to the threats posed by China and Russia. It further maintains that 'inter-state strategic competition, not terrorism, is now the primary concern in U.S. national security.' (p. 1)"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2018-02-05
• 2017 National Security Strategy: Issues for Congress [December 19, 2017]

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  "On December 18, 2017, the Trump Administration released its first National Security Strategy (NSS). The document maintains that, in addition to the threats posed to the United States by rogue regimes and violent extremist organizations that have been a central focus of national security policy since the end of the Cold War, great power rivalry and competition have once again become a central feature of the international security landscape. To advance U.S. interests effectively within this strategic context, the Administration argues, the United States must improve domestic American security and bolster economic competitiveness while rebuilding its military."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2017-12-19
• Evaluating Possible U.S. Troop Withdrawals from Hostile Areas [February 1, 2019]

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  "On December 19, 2018, President Trump announced his intention to withdraw U.S. forces from Syria within 30 days, although Administration officials subsequently suggested that the process could take several months. Subsequent press articles indicated that the White House is also considering withdrawing 'up to half' of U.S. forces in Afghanistan in the coming months, although at the time of writing the Trump Administration has stated it has not yet ordered any such withdrawal. More recently, the United States has been negotiating with Afghan Taliban representatives regarding the conditions upon which, if met, American forces might withdraw from Afghanistan. Opinions vary as whether these negotiations might lead to a successful settlement. Regardless, the suggestion that the United States might curtail its military operational commitment to those theaters raises a number of issues which may be of interest to Congress. In particular, from a strategic perspective, when is a withdrawal from a military operation appropriate?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2019-02-01
• Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [December 20, 2018]

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  From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2018-12-20
• Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [December 13, 2016]

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  From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2016-12-13
• COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment -- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated May 28, 2020]

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  From the Introduction: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. This report provides a brief overview of some potential implications the COVID-19 pandemic might have for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world, and a bibliography of CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports and other writings for further reading. Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

  2020-05-28
• COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated May 8, 2020]

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  From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. Observers who argue the COVID-19 pandemic could be world-changing for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world have focused on several areas of potential change. [...] Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

  2020-05-08
• U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated May 8, 2020]

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  From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have heightened significantly, and evolved into conflict after U.S. military forces killed Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Quds Force (IRGC-QF) and one of Iran's most important military commanders, in a U.S. airstrike in Baghdad on January 3, 2020. The United States and Iran have appeared to be on the brink of additional hostilities since, as attacks by Iran-backed groups on bases in Iraq inhabited by U.S. forces have continued."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-05-08
• United States European Command: Overview and Key Issues [Updated February 13, 2020]

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  From the History: "The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a withdrawal of the bulk of forward-deployed U.S. troops in the European theater. Decisions to do so were arguably based on a number of strategic assumptions held by successive administrations after the end of the Cold War, including that: [1] Europe could be stable, whole, and free; [2] Russia could be a constructive partner in the Euro-Atlantic security architecture; and [3] particularly prior to September 11, 2001, threats posed by terrorism and migration from the Middle East/North Africa region were limited. EUCOM [United States European Command] subsequently focused its activities on non-warfighting missions, including building the security capacity and capability of former Soviet bloc states, prosecuting 'crisis management' operations in the Balkans, and logistically supporting other combatant commands (by providing, in particular, critical medical evacuation facilities at Landstuhl), including U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) and U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM). Over the past 25 years, decisions regarding U.S. basing and posture in the European theater have largely reflected these assumptions. The bulk of U.S. forces in Europe have been withdrawn and many bases and outposts were either consolidated or closed. However, two Brigade Combat Teams (BCTs) were retained (in Italy and Germany) as were some naval bases, particularly those along NATO's southern flank, and a number of Air Force bases that were deemed critical for supporting operations in the Middle East, Africa and Europe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-13
• Overview: The Department of Defense and COVID-19 [March 31, 2020]

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  From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) is one of many U.S. government agencies participating in the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)-led COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] national response framework. As developments unfold, interest has grown regarding what DOD might be able to contribute to the U.S. government's COVID-19 response. On March 24, 2020, Secretary of Defense Esper stated that DOD's top COVID-19 priorities are protecting the Defense Department's people, maintaining military readiness, and supporting the whole-of-government interagency response. With respect to whole-of-government response, below is a non-exhaustive survey of some DOD capabilities that might be applied to the current situation if directed to do so."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-03-31
• COVID-19: National Security and Defense Strategy [April 30, 2020]

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  From the Document: "The outbreak of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has prompted questions about U.S. national security and crisis preparedness. Inherent to those discussions are broader, foundational questions about how the United States government conceptualizes national security, and the currently held view by many of the relative prioritization of the Department of Defense (DOD) over other instruments of national power."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-04-30
• United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM) [March 17, 2020]

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  From the Document: "United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM), headquartered in Miami, FL, was officially established in 1963. Prior to that, U.S. military elements in the Western hemisphere had been organized under the U.S. Caribbean Defense Command. SOUTHCOM's area of responsibility (AOR) begins at the southern Mexican border and contains the remaining elements of Central and South America, adjacent Atlantic and Pacific waters, as well as the Caribbean Sea, ultimately encompassing 31 countries and 16 dependencies and areas of special sovereignty. The region represents about one-sixth of the landmass of the world assigned to regional unified commands. SOUTHCOM is led by U.S. Navy Admiral Craig S. Faller."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-03-17
• United States Central Command [February 13, 2020]

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  From the Document: "According to the U.S. Unified Command Plan, the Department of Defense (DOD) document that articulates the division of operational responsibilities amongst the 11 Combatant Commands (CoCOMs), United States Central Command (CENTCOM) has command authority over U.S. forces in the Middle East and West/Central Asia. CENTCOM was formally established by DOD on January 1, 1983. Its area of responsibility (AOR) comprises Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Iran, Turkmenistan, Lebanon, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Accordingly, its geography spans more than 4 million square miles and is populated by more than 550 million people from 22 ethnic groups, speaking 18 languages with hundreds of dialects and professing multiple religions that transcend national borders. Headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base (AFB) in Tampa, Florida, CENTCOM is commanded by Marine Corps General Kenneth F. McKenzie, who previously served as the Director of Strategic Plans and Policy in the Joint Staff."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-13
• Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [Updated February 18, 2020]

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  From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2020-02-18
• U.S.-Iran Tensions and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated August 30, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have escalated, but not erupted into armed conflict. The Trump Administration, following its 2018 withdrawal from the 2015 multilateral nuclear agreement with Iran (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, JCPOA), has taken several steps in its campaign of applying 'maximum pressure' on Iran. Iran and Iran-linked forces have targeted and sometimes seized commercial ships, attacked infrastructure in U.S. partner countries, and posed threats to U.S. forces and interests, including downing a U.S. unmanned aerial vehicle. The Administration has sent additional military assets to the region to try to deter future Iranian actions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs)

  2019-08-30
• Niger: Frequently Asked Questions About the October 2017 Attack on U.S. Soldiers [October 27, 2017]

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  "A deadly attack on U.S. soldiers in Niger and their local counterparts on October 4, 2017, has prompted many questions from Members of Congress about the incident. It has also highlighted a range of broader issues for Congress pertaining to oversight and authorization of U.S. military deployments, evolving U.S. global counterterrorism activities and strategy, interagency security assistance and cooperation efforts, and U.S. engagement with countries historically considered peripheral to core U.S. national security interests."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Arieff, Alexis; Blanchard, Lauren Ploch; Feickert, Andrew . . .

  2017-10-27
• U.S.-Iran Tensions and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated July 29, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have escalated. The Trump Administration, following its 2018 withdrawal from the 2015 multilateral nuclear agreement with Iran (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, JCPOA), has taken several steps in its campaign of applying 'maximum pressure' on Iran. Iran and Iran-linked forces have targeted commercial ships and infrastructure in U.S. partner countries. U.S. officials have stated that Iran-linked threats to U.S. forces and interests, and attacks on several commercial ships in May and June 2019, have prompted the Administration to send additional military assets to the region to deter future Iranian actions. However, Iran's downing of a U.S. unmanned aerial aircraft might indicate that Iran has not been deterred, to date."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2019-07-29
• U.S.-Iran Tensions and Implications for U.S. Policy [July 1, 2019]

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  From the Document: "In the spring of 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have escalated. The Trump Administration, following its 2018 withdrawal from the 2015 multilateral nuclear agreement with Iran (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, JCPOA), has taken several steps in its campaign of applying 'maximum pressure' on Iran. Iran or Iran-linked forces have targeted commercial ships and infrastructure in U.S. partner countries. U.S. officials have stated that Iran-linked threats to U.S. forces and interests, and attacks on several commercial ships in May and June 2019, have prompted the Administration to send additional military assets to the region to deter future Iranian actions. President Donald Trump, while warning Iran not to take action against the United States, has said he prefers a diplomatic solution over moving toward military confrontation. The Administration has expanded U.S. sanctions against Iran, including sanctioning its mineral and petrochemical exports during May-June 2019, placing further pressure on Iran's economy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2019-07-01
• Precedent for the Service of Active Duty Three-Star Generals and Flag Officers as the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs [March 2, 2017]

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  "On February 20, 2017, the Trump Administration announced the appointment of U.S. Army Lieutenant General Herbert Raymond 'H.R.' McMaster, Jr. to serve as the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. The Trump Administration further indicated that Lieutenant General McMaster would remain on active duty status following his assumption of the duties of the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs-a position that is also frequently referred to by the title of National Security Advisor. U.S. Presidents have acted in three previous instances to designate three-star active duty U.S. military flag and general officers as the National Security Advisor: U.S. Air Force Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft in 1975; U.S. Navy Vice Admiral John M. Poindexter in 1985; and U.S. Army Lieutenant General Colin L. Powell in 1987. While Scowcroft retired from active duty military service shortly after his designation as National Security Advisor by President Gerald Ford, Poindexter and Powell remained in their grades as three-star military officers while serving as the National Security Advisor, choices which mandated the involvement of the U.S. Senate. This memorandum proceeds in the following manner. It first explains the National Security Council, the policymaking processes it oversees, and the role of the National Security Advisor within the Executive Branch. It then explores these prior precedents of active duty three-star generals and flag officers serving as the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, and includes discussions of related statutory provisions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Peters, Heidi M.; Kapp, Lawrence; McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2017-03-02
• 'Space Force' and Related DOD Proposals: Issues for Congress [April 8, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Over the past year, Congress saw a variety of overlapping proposals advanced for the reorganization of U.S. military activities in space. Major proposals include [1] the creation of a Space Force (SF), a new branch of the Armed Forces under the Secretary of the Air Force; [2] the reestablishment of a U.S. Space Command as an additional unified combatant command; and [3] the establishment of a Department of Defense Space Development Agency. While few observers dispute the notion that the Department of Defense (DOD) should better organize and manage its space capabilities, agreement ends there. Some believe all three proposals should be adopted; others believe only some, if any, should become permanent institutions within DOD. Taken together, these overlapping proposals could present considerable challenges to DOD's functioning in one of the most critically important operational domains. Regardless, the concepts and details of these military spacerelated proposals remain unclear--if not contradictory--at this time, prompting fundamental questions about plans to reorganize DOD's space programs, capabilities, and agencies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; McCall, Stephen M.

  2019-04-08
• United States European Command: Overview and Key Issues [March 12, 2019]

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  From the Document: "United States European Command (or EUCOM, pronounced 'YEW-com') is headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany, and was established in 1952. Today its area of responsibility comprises 51 countries stretching from Portugal's Azores Islands to Iceland and Israel. USEUCOM's commander is currently U.S. Army General Curtis Scaparrotti, who is simultaneously NATO's Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). During the Cold War, the European theater was a primary focus for U.S. defense and national security and EUCOM was focused almost exclusively on deterring, and if necessary defeating, the Soviet Union. At the height of the Cold War, there were more than 400,000 U.S. troops stationed in Europe. [...] [...] Events in recent years, particularly since 2014, have tested, if not undermined, the strategic assumptions underpinning EUCOM's posture. To Europe's east, Russia annexed Crimea, began a proxy war in Eastern Ukraine, and is modernizing its conventional and nonconventional forces. Russia also increased its military activities in Europe's high north, particularly through reportedly adding nuclear-capable missiles to Kaliningrad (a Russian territory on the Baltic Sea that is not contiguous with Russia itself), enhancing its air patrolling activities close to other states' airspace, and enhancing its naval presence in the Baltic Sea, the Arctic Ocean, and the North Sea. Taken together, these moves have heightened some congressional concerns about Russian aggression and its implications for NATO territories, particularly among Central and Eastern European NATO allies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.

  2019-03-12