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• Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Political Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests [Updated April 5, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The United States recognized the independence of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia when the former Soviet Union broke up at the end of 1991. The United States has fostered these states' ties with the West in part to end the dependence of these states on Russia for trade, security, and other relations. The United States has pursued close ties with Armenia to encourage its democratization and because of concerns by Armenian-Americans and others over its fate. Close ties with Georgia have evolved from U.S. contacts with its pro-Western leadership. The Bush Administration supports U.S. private investment in Azerbaijan's energy sector as a means of increasing the diversity of world energy suppliers and to encourage building multiple energy pipelines to world markets. The United States has been active in diplomatic efforts to end conflicts in the region, several of which remain unresolved. […] Key issues in the 110th Congress regarding the South Caucasus are likely to focus on bolstering Georgia's democratization and security; Azerbaijan's energy development; and Armenia's independence and economic development. At the same time, concerns might include the status of democratization and human rights in Azerbaijan, the on-going Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict over the breakaway Nagorno Karabakh region, and threats posed to Georgia by ongoing separatism and Russian actions. Congress will likely scrutinize Armenia's and Georgia's reform progress as recipients of Millennium Challenge Account grants."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2007-04-05
• U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues [Updated April 3, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "During the Cold War, the U.S. nuclear arsenal contained many types of delivery vehicles for nuclear weapons. The longer range systems, which included long-range missiles based on U.S. territory, long-range missiles based on submarines, and heavy bombers that could threaten Soviet targets from their bases in the United States, are known as strategic nuclear delivery vehicles. At the end of the Cold War, in 1991, the United States deployed more than 10,000 warheads on these delivery vehicles. That number has declined to around 6,000 warheads today, and is slated, under the 2002 Moscow Treaty, to decline to 2,200 warheads by the year 2012. At the present time, the U.S. land-based ballistic missile force (ICBMs) consists of 500 Minuteman III ICBMs, each deployed with between one and three warheads, for a total of 1,200 warheads. The Air Force recently deactivated all 50 of the 10-warhead Peacekeeper ICBMs; it plans to eventually deploy Peacekeeper warheads on some of the Minuteman ICBMs. The 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) report also indicated that it planned to eliminate 50 of the Minuteman III missiles, leaving a force of 450 missiles that would carry, perhaps, 500-600 warheads. The 109th Congress stalled this plan, pending a study from the Administration. The Air Force is also modernizing the Minuteman missiles, replacing and upgrading their rocket motors, guidance systems, and other components. The Air Force had expected to begin replacing the Minuteman missiles around 2018, but has decided, instead, to continue to modernize and maintain the existing missiles."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.

  2007-04-03
• Immigration of Foreign Workers: Labor Market Tests and Protections [Updated April 24, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Many business people have expressed concern that a scarcity of labor in certain sectors may curtail the pace of economic growth. A leading legislative response to skills mismatches and labor shortages has been to increase the supply of foreign workers. While the demand for more skilled and highly-trained foreign workers has garnered much of the attention in recent years, there has also been pressure to increase unskilled temporary foreign workers, commonly referred to as guest workers. Those opposing increases in foreign workers assert that there is no compelling evidence of labor shortages. Opponents maintain that salaries and compensation would be rising if there is a labor shortage and if employers wanted to attract qualified U.S. workers. Some allege that employers prefer guest workers because they are less demanding in terms of wages and working conditions, and that expanding guest worker visas would have a deleterious effect on U.S. workers. The number of foreign workers entering the United States legally has notably increased over the past decade. The number of employment-based legal permanent residents (LPRs) has grown from under 100,000 in FY1994 to over 250,000 in FY2005. The number of visas for employment-based temporary non-immigrants rose from just under 600,000 in FY1994 to approximately 1.2 million in FY2005. In particular, 'H' visas for temporary workers tripled from 98,030 in FY1994 to 321,336 in FY2005."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2007-04-24
• Ports in Louisiana: New Orleans, South Louisiana, and Baton Rouge [Updated October 14, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "This report provides background information and import/export statistics on the ports of New Orleans, South Louisiana, and Baton Rouge. These ports provide important access to world markets and sources of exported and imported raw materials. The three ports are usually discussed together because of their shared geography, ship traffic, and cargo. When Hurricane Katrina made landfall on August 29, 2005, it stalled the transportation supply lines for imports and exports in the area. Port Fourchon, which is a multi-use port and services offshore oil and gas facilities and the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port will not be covered in this report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cieslak, Vanessa

  2005-10-14
• Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Security Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests [Updated April 16, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The South Caucasus region has been the most unstable in the former Soviet Union in terms of the numbers, intensity, and length of ethnic and civil conflicts. Other emerging or full-blown security problems include crime, corruption, terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and narcotics trafficking. The regional governments have worked to bolster their security by combating terrorism, limiting political dissent they view as threatening, revamping their armed forces, and seeking outside assistance and allies. The roles of neighbors Iran, Russia, and Turkey have been of deep security concern to one or more of the states of the region. These and other major powers, primarily the United States and European Union (EU) members, have pursued differing interests and policies toward the three states. Some officials in Russia view the region as a traditional sphere of influence, while Turkish officials tend to stress common ethnic ties with Azerbaijan and most of Central Asia. EU members are increasingly addressing instability in what they view as a far corner of Europe. Armenia has pursued close ties with Russia and Iran in part to counter Azerbaijan's ties with Turkey, and Georgia and Azerbaijan have stressed ties with the United States in part to bolster their independence vis-a-vis Russia."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2007-04-16
• Water Infrastructure Needs and Investment: Review and Analysis of Key Issues [Updated March 19, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Policymakers are giving increased attention to issues associated with financing and investing in the nation's drinking water and wastewater treatment systems, which take in water, treat it, and distribute it to households and other customers, and later collect, treat, and discharge water after use. The renewed attention is due to a combination of factors. These include financial impacts on communities of meeting existing and anticipated regulatory requirements, the need to repair and replace existing infrastructure, and concerns about paying for security-related projects. The federal government has a long history of involvement with wastewater and drinking water systems, with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) having the most significant role, both in terms of regulation and funding. The U.S. Department of Agriculture also plays an important role in rural communities through its water and wastewater loan and grant programs. These programs have been popular; however, states, local communities, and others have asserted that various program gaps and limitations may be diminishing their potential effectiveness. They also point to the emergence of new infrastructure needs and issues. A number of interest groups and coalitions have issued reports on infrastructure funding needs and related policy issues, as have EPA and the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). They present a range of estimates and scenarios of future investment costs and gaps between current spending and future costs. EPA and CBO, in particular, caution that projections of future costs are highly uncertain, and that funding gaps are not inevitable."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tiemann, Mary; Copeland, Claudia

  2007-03-19
• Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues [Updated January 24, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Ethanol plays a key role in policy discussions about energy, agriculture, taxes, and the environment. In the United States it is mostly made from corn; in other countries it is often made from cane sugar. Fuel ethanol is generally blended in gasoline to reduce emissions, increase octane, and extend gasoline stocks. Recent high oil and gasoline prices have led to increased interest in alternatives to petroleum fuels for transportation. Further, concerns over climate change have raised interest in developing fuels with lower fuel-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions. Supporters of ethanol argue that its use can lead to lower emissions of toxic and ozone-forming pollutants, and greenhouse gases, especially if higher-level blends are used. They further argue that ethanol use displaces petroleum imports, thus promoting energy security. Ethanol's detractors argue that various federal and state policies supporting ethanol distort the market and amount to corporate welfare for corn growers and ethanol producers. Further, they argue that the energy and chemical inputs needed to turn corn into ethanol actually increase emissions and energy consumption, although most recent studies have found modest energy and emissions benefits from ethanol use relative to gasoline. The market for fuel ethanol is heavily dependent on federal incentives and regulations. Ethanol production is encouraged by a federal tax credit of 51 cents per gallon. This incentive allows ethanol-which has historically been more expensive than conventional gasoline-to compete with gasoline and other blending components."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2007-01-24
• Immigration Issues in Trade Agreements [Updated January 25, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The connections between trade and migration are as longstanding as the historic movements of goods and people. The desire for commerce may often be the principal motivation, but the need to send people to facilitate the transactions soon follows. Recognition of this phenomenon is incorporated into the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), which includes provisions for aliens who are entering the United States solely as 'treaty traders' and 'treaty investors.' Although the United States has not created a common market for the movement of labor with our trading partners, there are immigration provisions in existing free trade agreements (FTAs) that spell out reciprocal terms regulating the 'temporary entry of business persons.' Immigration issues often raised in the context of the FTAs include whether FTAs should contain provisions that expressly expand immigration between the countries as well as whether FTAs should require that the immigrant-sending countries restrain unwanted migration (typically expressed as illegal aliens). The question of whether the movement of people -- especially temporary workers -- is subsumed under the broader category of 'provision of services' and thus an inherent part of any free trade agreement also arises. Even in FTAs that do not have explicit immigration provisions, such as the United States-Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), there may be a debate over the effects that FTAs might have on future migration."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2007-01-25
• Broadband Internet Regulation and Access: Background and Issues [Updated March 14, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Broadband or high-speed Internet access is provided by a series of technologies that give users the ability to send and receive data at volumes and speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. In addition to offering speed, broadband access provides a continuous, 'always on' connection and the ability to both receive (download) and transmit (upload) data at high speeds. Broadband access, along with the content and services it might enable, has the potential to transform the Internet: both what it offers and how it is used. It is possible that many of the future applications that will best exploit the technological capabilities of broadband have yet to be developed. There are multiple transmission media or technologies that can be used to provide broadband access. These include cable, an enhanced telephone service called digital subscriber line (DSL), satellite, fixed wireless (including 'wi-fi' and 'Wi-Max'), broadband over powerlines (BPL), fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), and others. While many (though not all) offices and businesses now have Internet broadband access, a remaining challenge is providing broadband over 'the last mile' to consumers in their homes. Currently, a number of competing telecommunications companies are developing, deploying, and marketing specific technologies and services that provide residential broadband access. From a public policy perspective, the goals are to ensure that broadband deployment is timely and contributes to the nation's economic growth, that industry competes fairly, and that service is provided to all sectors and geographical locations of American society."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gilroy, Angele A.; Kruger, Lennard G.

  2007-03-14
• Ukraine: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated April 4, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "In January 2005, Viktor Yushchenko became Ukraine's new President, after massive demonstrations helped to overturn the former regime's electoral fraud, in what has been dubbed the 'Orange Revolution,' after Yushchenko's campaign color. The 'Orange Revolution' sparked a good deal of interest in Congress and elsewhere. Some hoped that Ukraine might finally embark on a path of comprehensive reforms and Euro-Atlantic integration after nearly 15 years of half-measures and false starts. However, infighting within his governing coalition hampered economic reforms and led to disillusionment among Orange Revolution supporters. On March 26, 2006, Ukraine held parliamentary elections. Analysts interpreted the election results as a sharp rebuke to President Yushchenko and his Our Ukraine bloc. The largest vote-getter in the elections was the Party of Regions, headed by Viktor Yanukovych, Yushchenko's opponent in the 2004 presidential vote. After the failure of protracted attempts to reconstitute the Orange Revolution coalition, the Socialist Party formed a coalition with the Party of Regions and the Communists, which put forward Yanukovych as its candidate for Prime Minister. President Yushchenko reluctantly appointed Yanukovych as Prime Minister, and the Ukrainian parliament approved the new government on August 4, 2006. Political developments in Ukraine since then have been characterized by a power struggle between Yushchenko and Yanukovych. Yanukovych's government and the parliamentary majority have worked steadily to whittle away at Yushchenko's powers and political influence."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woehrel, Steven J.

  2007-04-04
• Water Infrastructure Projects Designated in EPA Appropriations: Trends and Policy Implications [Updated March 9, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Congressional action to designate funds within appropriations legislation for specified projects or locations has been increasing in recent years as a way to help communities meet needs to build and upgrade water infrastructure systems, whose estimated future funding needs exceed $450 billion. Such legislative action has often been popularly referred to as earmarking. This report discusses appropriations for water infrastructure programs of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), focusing on such designations in the account that funds these programs. Information on the programmatic history of EPA involvement in assisting wastewater treatment and drinking water projects is provided in two appendixes. Congressional appropriators began the practice of supplementing appropriations for the primary Clean Water Act (CWA) and Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) assistance programs with grants for individually designated projects in FY1989. Since then, of the $41.8 billion appropriated to EPA for water infrastructure assistance, 16% ($6.8 billion) has gone to designated project grants. Notably since FY2000, appropriators have awarded such grants to a larger total number of projects, resulting in more communities receiving such assistance, but at the same time receiving smaller amounts of funds, on average."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia

  2007-03-09
• Western Sahara: Status of Settlement Efforts [Updated April 18, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Since the 1970s, Morocco and the independence-seeking Popular Front for the Liberation of Saqiat al Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) have vied for control of the Western Sahara, a former Spanish territory. In 1991, the United Nations arranged a cease-fire and proposed a settlement plan that called for a referendum to allow the people of the Western Sahara to choose between independence and integration into Morocco. A long deadlock on determining the electorate for a referendum ensued. The U.N. then unsuccessfully suggested alternatives to the unfulfilled settlement plan, particularly one formulated by James Baker. In recent years, it has called on the parties to negotiate. In April 2007, Morocco offered an autonomy plan, which does not offer the prospect of independence and is unlikely to end the impasse. The issue has affected Algerian-Moroccan bilateral relations and wider regional cooperation. The United States supports U.N. efforts and a solution that would not destabilize its ally, Morocco. Some Members of Congress support a referendum and are frustrated by delays. This report will be updated if developments warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Migdalovitz, Carol

  2007-04-18
• China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues [Updated October 22, 2007]

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  "Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the national interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and missiles that could deliver them. Recipients of China's technology reportedly include Pakistan and countries that the State Department says support terrorism, such as Iran and North Korea. This CRS Report, updated as warranted, discusses the security problem of China's role in weapons proliferation and issues related to the U.S. policy response since the mid- 1990s. China has taken some steps to mollify U.S. concerns about its role in weapons proliferation. Nonetheless, supplies from China have aggravated trends that result in ambiguous technical aid, more indigenous capabilities, longer-range missiles, and secondary (retransferred) proliferation. According to unclassified reports to Congress by the intelligence community, China has been a 'key supplier' of weapons technology, particularly missile or chemical technology. Skeptics question whether China's cooperation in weapons nonproliferation has warranted President Bush's pursuit of closer bilateral ties. In this relationship, some observers say that President Bush has not forcefully pressed China's leaders on weapons nonproliferation as a priority issue, even while imposing numerous U.S. sanctions. Moreover, sanctions target 'entities' but not the PRC government. China did not join the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI). The 110th Congress passed H.R. 1 (P.L. 110-53) that included language to encourage China's participation in PSI. Since 2002, Bush has relied on China's 'considerable influence' on North Korea to dismantle its nuclear weapons, and Beijing has hosted the Six-Party Talks. China has pursued balanced positions on North Korea and Iran, but also evolved to vote for U.N. Security Council sanctions against nuclear proliferation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2007-10-22
• MS-13 and 18th Street Gangs: Emerging Transnational Gang Threats? [November 2, 2007]

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  "Two predominantly Latino gangs, Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and the 18th Street gang (M-18), have raised concern among policy makers for several reasons: (1) membership in these gangs has spread from the Los Angeles area to other communities across the United States; (2) these gangs are becoming 'transnational,' primarily because MS-13 and M-18 cliques are being established in Central America and Mexico; (3) evidence suggests that these gangs are engaged in criminal enterprises normally associated with better organized and more sophisticated crime syndicates; and (4) MS-13 and M-18 gang members may be involved in smuggling operations and, by extension, could potentially use their skills and criminal networks to smuggle terrorists into the United States. To date, however, no evidence exists establishing a link between MS-13 and M-18 members and terrorists. […] At issue for Congress is whether the MS-13 and M-18 gangs constitute an emerging transnational criminal threat. The federal response to the MS-13 and M-18 gang problem has largely involved the enforcement of criminal and immigration laws, including the deportation of alien gang members. More recently, federal efforts have focused on prosecuting gang members under the Racketeer Influence and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) statute. Deported alien gang members have established MS-13 and M-18 gang cliques in their home countries, and some experts suggest that U.S. deportation policies have effectively transported U.S.-styled gang culture to parts of Central America and Mexico. Moreover, evidence shows that deported alien MS-13 and M-18 gang members have established a 'revolving door' migratory pattern of repeat illegal reentry into the United States, raising concerns that these 'migratory' alien gang members may become involved in narco-trafficking, smuggling, and other criminal activities along the U.S.-Mexico border."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Franco, Celinda

  2007-11-02
• Terrorism Risk Insurance: Issue Analysis and Legislation [Updated October 18, 2007]

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  "Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, insurance protecting against property losses that might occur in future attacks became costly or unavailable for many businesses. In response, Congress passed the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 (TRIA, P.L. 107-297, 116 Stat. 2322), creating a temporary reinsurance backstop that would spread terrorism losses over time and over a wider base of companies and policyholders while having taxpayers absorb some of these losses, particularly in the event of a large-scale terrorist attack. TRIA was limited to commercial property and casualty insurance, covering up to $100 billion each year after set insurer deductibles. The government would have paid 90% of insured losses over the deductible. If the losses were under a certain amount, ranging from $10 billion to $15 billion, the industry would have been required to pay back the government-provided funds through industry-wide recoupments. […] In the 110th Congress, the House passed H.R. 2617 on September 19, 2007. This bill would make substantial changes to TRIA, including adding 15 years to the program; adding group life insurance; requiring that insurers cover nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological attacks; and lowering the program trigger amount to $50 million. A bill that would extend the program only seven years and add domestic terrorism to the program was ordered reported out of committee in the Senate on October 17, 2007. This report provides an overview of TRIA-related issues, including a summary of the current TRIA program as well as the legislation that created and extended the program. It will be updated as major events occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Webel, Baird

  2007-10-18
• Commercial Fishery Disaster Assistance [October 15, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Disaster relief is provided by the federal government to assist the fishing industry when it is affected by a commercial fishery failure. A commercial fishery failure occurs when fishermen endure hardships resulting from fish population declines or other disruptions to the fishery. The Department of Commerce can provide disaster assistance under either § 308 of the Interjurisdictional Fisheries Act (IFA) (16 U.S.C. [United States Code] § 4107), as amended, or § 312(a) of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 U.S.C § 1861(a)). The National Marine Fisheries Service plays a central role in determining whether a disaster has occurred and in allocating funding to states and affected fishing communities. Congress also plays a pivotal role by appropriating funds and providing oversight of the process. Fisheries are subject to environmental variability that may affect the fishery resource and/or commercial infrastructure such as boats, shoreside processing, and market infrastructure. Since 1994, federal fishery failures have been declared on 22 occasions and nearly $560 million has been appropriated for fishery disaster relief. Funds have been allocated to fisheries of the North Pacific, Pacific Northwest, Gulf of Mexico, and the East Coast. The most recent cases involved Gulf of Mexico fisheries in the wake of hurricanes Katrina and Rita, and the strict limits placed on the West Coast salmon troll fishery in response to declines of Klamath River Chinook salmon. Direct financial assistance has been provided to fishermen and fishing communities in the form of grants, job retraining, employment, and low interest loans. Assistance has also included fishery data collection, research, and fishing capacity reduction programs to prevent or lessen the effects of future disruptions to fisheries. However, critics contend that disaster assistance programs often fall short of expectations because sometimes funds are not disbursed in a timely manner, relief needs to be integrated with long-term fishery management objectives, and funds may not reach the people who are in the greatest need of assistance."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Upton, Harold F. (Harold Frank)

  2007-10-15
• Forestry in the 2007 Farm Bill [Updated August 20, 2007]

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  "Many programs authorized in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171) will expire at the end of FY2007, and the House has passed and Senate Agriculture Committee is likely to consider bills to reauthorize these programs. General forestry legislation is within the jurisdiction of the Agriculture Committees, and past farm bills have included provisions addressing forestry, especially on private lands. Most federal forestry programs are permanently authorized, and thus do not require periodic reauthorization in the farm bill. Nonetheless, the 2002 farm bill reauthorized one office (international forestry), created a new private landowner cost-share assistance program (the Forest Land Enhancement Program) replacing two previously existing programs, and enacted a new Community Fire Protection Program. A 2007 farm bill may also include forestry provisions addressing various issues. […]The Administration's 2007 proposed farm bill includes a forestry title. It proposes four new programs: (1) comprehensive statewide forest planning; (2) competitive landscape-scale forestry grants; (3) a 10-year, $150 million forest wood-to-energy technology development program; and (4) financial and technical assistance to communities for acquiring, planning for, and conserving community forests. […]"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gorte, Ross W.

  2007-08-20
• Paraguay: Background and U.S. Relations [October 2, 2007]

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  "The demise of the long-ruling Stroessner military dictatorship in 1989 initiated a political transition in Paraguay that has been difficult at times. Current President Nicanor Duarte Frutos has implemented some reforms that have addressed corruption and contributed to economic growth. Yet, due in large part to the country's authoritarian past, Paraguay's state institutions remain weak while corruption remains ingrained in the political culture, impeding democratic consolidation and economic development. The April 2008 presidential elections could serve as a test of the strength of Paraguay's democracy since the ruling Colorado Party faces the possibility of losing its dominance after 60 years in power. At this juncture, the opposition is divided mainly between support for former Catholic bishop Fernando Lugo and former General Lino Oviedo, the leader of a failed 1996 coup who was released from prison in early September 2007. Lugo had been the leading opposition candidate and was considered the frontrunner for the elections but the emergence of Oviedo's candidacy has altered the political context. Both Lugo and Oviedo may still be declared ineligible to run in the elections by the Paraguayan Supreme Court. Observers believe that, in the absence of a second-round run off, a divided opposition increases the chances of the Colorado Party's candidate retaining the presidency in the 2008 elections."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Olhero, Nelson

  2007-10-02
• Islamic Religious Schools, Madrasas: Background [Updated January 23, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Since the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the Islamic religious schools known as 'madrasas' (or 'madrassahs') in the Middle East, Central, and Southeast Asia have been of increasing interest to U.S. policy makers. Some allege ties between madrasas and terrorist organizations, such as Al Qaeda, and assert that these religious schools promote Islamic extremism and militancy. Others maintain that most madrasas have been blamed unfairly for fostering anti-Americanism and for producing terrorists. This report provides an overview of madrasas, their role in the Muslim world, and issues related to their alleged links to terrorism. The report also addresses the findings of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (the '9/11 Commission') and issues relevant to the first session of the 110th Congress. Related products include CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS22009, CRS Report RL33533, CRS Report RL32499, CRS Report RS21695, CRS Report RS21457, CRS Report RL32259, and CRS Report RS21432. This report will be updated periodically."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Blanchard, Christopher M.

  2007-01-23
• Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya [Updated January 17, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and subsequent discussions of religious extremism have called attention to Islamic puritanical movements known as Wahhabism and Salafiyya. Al Qaeda leaders and their ideological supporters have advocated a violent message that some suggest is an extremist interpretation of this line of puritanical Islam. Other observers have accused Saudi Arabia, the center of Wahhabism, of having disseminated a religion that promotes hatred and violence, targeting the United States and its allies. Saudi officials strenuously deny these allegations. This report provides a background on Wahhabism and its relationship to active terrorist groups; it also summarizes recent charges against Wahhabism and responses, including the findings of the final report of the 9/11 Commission and relevant legislation in the 110th Congress. The report will be updated to reflect major developments. Related CRS [Congressional Research Service] products include CRS Report RL33533, CRS Report RL32499, CRS Report RS21432, CRS Report RS21529, CRS Report RS21654, and CRS Report RL31718."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Blanchard, Christopher M.

  2007-01-17
• Coastal Louisiana Ecosystem Restoration After Hurricanes Katrina and Rita [Updated October 25, 2007]

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  "Prior to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers had been seeking congressional approval for a $1.1 billion program both to construct five projects that would help restore specified sites in the coastal wetland ecosystem in Louisiana, and to continue planning several other related projects. The state of Louisiana and several federal agencies participated in the development of this program. This report introduces the program and more extensive restoration options that are being discussed in the wake of the hurricanes. It also discusses whether this program, if completed, might have muted the impacts of the hurricanes. Congressional consideration are being informed by new information about the extent of coastal wetland change that resulted from the hurricanes and further changes since the hurricanes struck. This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zinn, Jeffrey A.

  2007-10-25
• China Naval Modernization: Implications for the U.S. Navy Capabilities-Background and Issues for Congress [July 26, 2006]

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  From the Summary: "Concern has grown in Congress and elsewhere about China's military modernization. The topic is an increasing factor in discussions over future required U.S. Navy capabilities. The issue for Congress addressed in this report is: How should China's military modernization be factored into decisions about U.S. Navy programs? Several elements of China's military modernization have potential implications for future required U.S. Navy capabilities. These include theater-range ballistic missiles (TBMs), land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs), anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs), surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), land-based aircraft, submarines, surface combatants, amphibious ships, naval mines, nuclear weapons, and possibly high-power microwave (HPM) devices. China's naval limitations or weaknesses include capabilities for operating in waters more distant from China, joint operations, C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance), long-range surveillance and targeting systems, anti-air warfare (AAW), antisubmarine warfare (ASW), mine countermeasures (MCM), and logistics. […] Certain options are available for improving U.S. Navy capabilities by 2010; additional options, particularly in shipbuilding, can improve U.S. Navy capabilities in subsequent years. China's naval modernization raises potential issues for Congress concerning the role of China in Department of Defense (DOD) and Navy planning; the size of the Navy; the Pacific Fleet's share of the Navy; forward home porting of Navy ships in the Western Pacific; the number of aircraft carriers, submarines, and ASW-capable platforms; Navy missile defense, air-warfare, AAW, ASW, and mine warfare programs; Navy computer network security; and EMP [electromagnetic pulse] hardening of Navy systems. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2006-06-26
• America COMPETES Act: Programs, Funding, and Selected Issues [January 22, 2008]

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  From the Summary: "On August 2, 2007, Congress passed the America COMPETES [Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science] Act (H.R. 2272), which the President signed into law (P.L. [Public Law] 110-69) on August 9, 2007. The act responds to concerns that the United States may not be able to compete economically with other nations in the future due to insufficient investment today in science and technology research and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and workforce development. A similar concern had led President Bush to announce the American Competitiveness Initiative (ACI) in January 2006 during his State of the Union address. The America COMPETES Act authorizes an increase in the nation's investment in science and engineering research and in STEM education from kindergarten to graduate school and postdoctoral education. The act also establishes the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) and Discovery Science and Engineering Innovation Institutes. (Appendix A provides a summary of the act's programs.) […] At the heart of the America COMPETES Act is the goal of maintaining the United States as the leader in the global economy. Three broad trends influence today's globalization of the economy. The first is technology, which has sharply reduced the cost of communication and transportation that previously divided markets. The second is a dramatic increase in the world supply of labor producing goods and services traded internationally. The third is government policies that have reduced barriers to trade and investment. As Congress deliberates the FY2009 budget, the programs authorized by the America COMPETES Act will likely be considered during the appropriations process. Unlike the previous fiscal year, Congress has now authorized the America COMPETES Act programs. How the act is funded and the programs implemented remains to be determined as the second session of the 110th Congress proceeds."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stine, Deborah D.

  2008-01-22
• Global Climate Change: Three Policy Perspectives [Updated February 9, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The 1992 U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change requires that signatories, including the United States, establish policies for constraining future emission levels of suspected greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2). The George H. W. Bush, Clinton, and George W. Bush Administrations each drafted action plans in response to requirements of the convention. These plans have raised significant controversy and debate. […] An 'ecological lens' views environmental problems as the result of indifference to or disregard for the planet's ecosystem on which all life depends. The solutions to the problems lie in developing an understanding of and a respect for that ecosystem, and providing people with mechanisms to express that understanding in their daily choices. The implied governmental role would be to support ecologically based education and values, as well as to promote 'green' products and processes, for example through procurement policies and labeling requirements. Some initiatives are underway; all the perspectives are relevant in evaluating them and possible further policies. The purpose here is not to suggest that one lens is 'better' than another, but rather to articulate the implications of the differing perspectives in order to clarify terms of debate among diverse policy communities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parker, Larry, 1954-; Blodgett, John E.

  2007-02-09
• Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education Issues and Legislative Options [Updated July 26, 2006]

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  From the Summary: "There is growing concern that the United States is not preparing a sufficient number of students, teachers, and practitioners in the areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). A large majority of secondary school students fail to reach proficiency in math and science, and many are taught by teachers lacking adequate subject matter knowledge. When compared to other nations, the math and science achievement of U.S. pupils and the rate of STEM degree attainment appear inconsistent with a nation considered the world leader in scientific innovation. In a recent international assessment of 15-year-old students, the U.S. ranked 28th in math literacy and 24th in science literacy. Moreover, the U.S. ranks 20th among all nations in the proportion of 24-year-olds who earn degrees in natural science or engineering. […] Several pieces of legislation have been introduced in the 109th Congress that address U.S. economic competitiveness in general and support STEM education in particular. These proposals are designed to improve output from the STEM educational pipeline at all levels, and are drawn from several recommendations offered by the scientific and business communities. The objective of this report is to provide a useful context for these legislative proposals. To achieve this, the report first presents data on the state of STEM education and then examines the federal role in promoting STEM education. The report concludes with a discussion of selected legislative options currently being considered to improve STEM education. The report will be updated as significant legislative actions occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kuenzi, Jeffrey J., 1965-; Matthews, Christine M.; Mangan, Bonnie F.

  2006-07-26
• Vietnam PNTR Status and WTO Accession: Issues and Implications for the United States [Updated August 2, 2006]

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  From the Summary: "On May 31, 2006, U.S. and Vietnamese negotiators signed a bilateral agreement on the conditions for Vietnam's accession (entry) into the World Trade Organization (WTO). The agreement is just one in a number of steps that Vietnam must take to complete its 11-year quest to join the multilateral trade body. However, the agreement with the United States was the 'last' and, seemingly, the most difficult of the bilateral agreements that Vietnam had to negotiate with twenty-eight WTO members (including the European Union (EU) counting as one but representing twenty-five countries). Thus, the U.S.-Vietnam bilateral agreement on WTO accession signifies that Vietnam's accession process is drawing to a close. […] Accession to the WTO would afford Vietnam the protection of the multilateral system of rules in its trade relations with other WTO members, including the United States. It would help the United States in that Vietnam would be obligated to apply WTO rules in its trade. PNTR [permanent normal trade relations] status from the United States would provide Vietnam more predictability its growing trade relations with the United States and would shed a legacy of the cold war. For the United States, PNTR would be another in a series of steps the United States has taken in trade and foreign policy to normalize relations with Vietnam and place distance between current relations and the Vietnam War. During the congressional debate on PNTR Members might raise issues regarding the conditions for Vietnam's entry into the WTO and other issues pertaining to the U.S.-Vietnam economic relationship and other aspects of the overall U.S.-Vietnam relationship. Legislation (S. 3495 and H.R. 5602) regarding PNTR status for Vietnam has been introduced in the 109th Congress. The Congress has several options on how to act on this issue."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manyin, Mark E.; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Gelb, Bernard A.

  2006-08-02
• Central Asia: Regional Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests [Updated February 24, 2006]

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  From the Summary: "After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States recognized the independence of all the former Central Asian republics, supported their admission into Western organizations, and elicited Turkish support to counter Iranian influence in the region. Congress was at the forefront in urging the formation of coherent U.S. policies for aiding these and other Eurasian states of the former Soviet Union. Soon after the terrorist attacks on America on September 11, 2001, all the Central Asian states offered overflight and other support to coalition anti-terrorist efforts in Afghanistan. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan hosted coalition troops and provided access to airbases. In 2003, Uzbekistan endorsed coalition military action in Iraq and Kazakhstan provided about two dozen troops for rebuilding. […] Foreign Operations Appropriations for FY2006 was signed into law on November 14, 2005 (H.R. 3057; P.L. [Public Law] 109-102). The conferees (H.Rept. 109-265) call for $25 million in Freedom Support Act aid to Kazakhstan, $25 million to Kyrgyzstan, $24 million to Tajikistan, $5 million to Turkmenistan, and $20 million to Uzbekistan. The law continues prior year language conditioning aid to the governments of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan on progress in democratization and respect for human rights, and adds that the Uzbek government should permit an international investigation of the mid-2005 violence against civilians in Andijon."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2006-02-24
• Iran's Nuclear Program: Recent Developments [Updated August 3, 2006]

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  From the Summary: "International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspections since 2003 have revealed almost two decades' worth of undeclared nuclear activities in Iran, including uranium enrichment and plutonium separation efforts. Iran agreed in 2003 to suspend sensitive activities in exchange for promises of assistance from Germany, France, and the UK (EU-3), but negotiations broke down in August 2005. On September 24, 2005, the IAEA Board of Governors found Iran to be in noncompliance with its Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) safeguards agreement (GOV/2005/77) and voted (GOV/2006/14) on February 4, 2006, to report Iran to the U.N. Security Council. The Security Council called upon Iran to take steps requested of it by the IAEA Board in February -- resuspend enrichment and reprocessing, reconsider construction of its heavy water reactor, ratify and implement the Additional Protocol, and implement transparency measures. Iran has continued enrichment activities and failed to meet the Security Council's request. The permanent members of the Security Council plus Germany (P-5 + 1) offered Iran a new proposal on June 6, but Iranian delays led to the Council passing UNSCR 1696, giving Iran a deadline of August 31 to comply. This report will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Squassoni, Sharon A.

  2006-08-03
• Russian Natural Gas: Regional Dependence [Updated January 18, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Russia is the dominant natural gas supplier to Europe and neighboring former Soviet states, as well as a major provider of oil. Some countries are entirely or largely dependent upon Russian energy supplies, particularly other Soviet successor states. As such, Russia has some ability to dictate natural gas prices. Russia cut off the gas supply to Ukraine and to Moldova in January 2006 and threatened to cut off gas supplies to Belarus and Georgia during late 2006 price negotiations. These and other actions in the interim damaged Russia's reputation as a reliable energy supplier, spurred importing countries to seek other sources, and provoked criticism that it is using energy as a political tool."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gelb, Bernard A.

  2007-01-18
• Defense: FY2008 Authorization and Appropriations [Updated November 28, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "The President's FY2008 federal budget request, released February 5, 2007, included $647.4 billion in new budget authority for national defense. In addition to $483.2 billion for the regular operations of the Department of Defense (DOD), the request included $141.7 billion for continued military operations, primarily to fund the campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan, $17.4 billion for the nuclear weapons and other defense-related programs of the Department of Energy, and $5.2 billion for defense-related activities of other agencies. On July 31, 2007, the President requested an additional $5.3 billion for war-fighting costs, and on October 22 he requested an additional $42.3 billion for that purpose, bringing his total request for FY2008 war costs to $189.3 billion and the total requested for DOD in FY2008 to $695.0 billion. The $483.2 billion requested for DOD's 'base' budget -- that is, the request for regular operations excluding the cost of ongoing combat activity -- is $46.8 billion higher than the agency's base budget for FY2007, an increase of 11% in nominal terms and, by DOD's reckoning, an increase in real purchasing power of 8.0%. […] The Senate bill provided $449.5 billion in discretionary DOD budget authority plus $3 billion to acquire to beef up protection of U.S. borders. House-Senate conferees on H.R. 3222 concluded on November 6 a conference report that would appropriate $448.7.3 billion plus $11.6 billion to acquire MRAPs [Mine-Resistant, Ambush Protected]. On November 8, the House adopted the conference report by a vote of 400-15 and the Senate adopted it by voice vote. On November 13, the President signed the bill into law (P.L. [Public Law] 110-116)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Towell, Pat; Daggett, Stephen; Belasco, Amy

  2007-11-28