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• Marine Corps' Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) [Updated May 18, 2022]

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  From the Background: "According to the Marine Corps: The Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) is the Corps' next-generation vehicle designed to move Marines from ship to shore ('Figure 1'). Designed to replace the Corps' aging Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV - in service since 1972), the ACV will be the primary means of tactical mobility for the Marine infantry battalion at sea and ashore (Figure 2). The ACV will possess ground mobility and speed similar to the M1A1 tank during sustained operations ashore and have the capability to provide organic, direct fire support to dismounted infantry in the attack. The ACV will support expeditionary mobility capability and capacity with balanced levels of performance, protection and payload. There are currently four ACV variants planned: (1) a Personnel Variant (ACV-P), which can carry three crew members with 13 Marines and two days of combat equipment and supplies; (2) a Command and Control Variant (ACV-C); (3) a Recovery Variant; and (4) a 30-mm [millimeter] Gun Variant. The Marines intend for the ACV to provide effective land and tactical water mobility (ship-to-shore and shore-to-shore), precise supporting fires, and high levels of force protection intended to protect against blasts, fragmentation, and kinetic energy threats. The ACV program delivered initial ACV-P variants in November 2020 and delivered initial ACV-C variants in FY2022. Plans call for delivery of Improved Lethality 30- mm Gun Variants in FY2025 and Recovery Variants in FY2026."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Feickert, Andrew

  2022-05-18
• Bridging the Digital Divide: Broadband Workforce Considerations for the 117th Congress [May 18, 2022]

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  From the Document: "As classrooms, workplaces, and social activities migrated online during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the digital divide--the gap between those who have access to broadband (i.e., high-speed internet) and those who do not--highlighted the importance of broadband availability. The Federal Communications Commission's (FCC's) Fourteenth Broadband Deployment Report released in January 2021 estimates that 14.5 million Americans lack access to broadband--which the FCC defines as a connection that provides speeds of at least 25/3 megabits per second (Mbps). Since March 2020, Congress has provided $78 billion to address the digital divide and broadband availability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rachfal, Colby Leigh

  2022-05-18
• Statutory Interpretation: Theories, Tools, and Trends [Updated May 18, 2022]

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  From the Introduction: "Understanding the theories that govern how judges read statutes can help Congress legislate more effectively. As a practical matter, judicial opinions interpreting statutes necessarily shape the way in which those statutes are implemented. If Congress knows how courts ascribe meaning to statutory text, it might be able to eliminate some ambiguity regarding its meaning by drafting according to the predominant legal theories. [...] To help provide Congress with a general understanding of how courts interpret statutory language, this report begins by discussing the general goals of statutory interpretation, reviewing a variety of contemporary and historical approaches. The report then describes the two primary theories of interpretation employed today, before examining the main types of tools that courts use to determine statutory meaning. The report concludes by exploring developing issues in statutory interpretation. A separate CRS [Congressional Research Service] report explores in more detail the rules and presumptions that govern the construction of common components of federal legislation, such as legislative findings or severability clauses."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Brannon, Valerie C.

  2022-05-18
• Federal Financial Assistance and Civil Rights Requirements [May 18, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Congress has authorized federal agencies to distribute federal funding to aid a wide range of industries and entities. [...] The recipients of federal financial assistance are obligated to comply with various laws and regulations, including the requirements of four major civil rights laws[.] [...] As explored in more detail below, these civil rights laws are generally enforced in two ways. First, when an agency distributes financial assistance, it is responsible for ensuring recipients' compliance with the relevant civil rights laws in the funding programs it administers. [...] Second, private litigants harmed by a violation of these laws can sue in federal court to enforce relevant requirements against recipients directly. [...] This report opens with a brief discussion of the Supreme Court's treatment of Title VI, Title IX, Section 504, and the Age Discrimination Act as legislation enacted pursuant to Congress's authority under the Spending Clause before turning to an examination of these statutes' requirements, which apply to recipients of federal financial assistance. The report then notes how federal agencies and federal courts enforce these statutory and regulatory requirements. Given the legal obligations that come with the receipt of federal financial assistance, this report also explores questions regarding which types of federal aid qualify as federal financial assistance for the purposes of these civil rights spending laws, and which entities constitute recipients of such assistance. This report closes with potential legislative considerations, including a discussion of the unique aspects of legislation enacted pursuant to Congress's Spending Clause authority."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Back, Christine J.; Cole, Jared P.

  2022-05-18
• Women in Congress, 1917-2022: Service Dates and Committee Assignments by Member, and Lists by State and Congress [Updated May 18, 2022]

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  From the Summary: "In total 397 women have been elected or appointed to Congress, 259 Democrats and 138 Republicans. These figures include six nonvoting Delegates, one each from Guam, Hawaii, the District of Columbia, and American Samoa, and two from the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as one Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico. [...] A record 148 women were initially sworn in for the 117th Congress. Since then, two House Members have resigned, four new House Members have been sworn in, one Senator resigned, and one Senator's appointed term expired. [...] This report includes brief biographical information, committee assignments, dates of service, district information, and listings by Congress and state, and (for Representatives) congressional districts of the 397 women who have been elected or appointed to Congress. It will be updated when there are relevant changes in the makeup of Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manning, Jennifer E.; Brudnick, Ida A.; Shogan, Colleen J., 1975- . . .

  2022-05-18
• State and Federal Authority to Mandate COVID-19 Vaccination [Updated May 17, 2022]

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  From the Summary: "This report provides an overview of state and federal authority to mandate vaccination. The first part of the report provides background on state and local authority to mandate vaccination under the states' general police power. It discusses the Supreme Court's long-standing recognition of state and local authority to mandate vaccination as an exercise of their police power, and modern courts' analyses of more recent challenges to state vaccination mandates based on the First Amendment's Free Exercise Clause. The report then analyzes the Supreme Court's evolving free exercise jurisprudence and the questions it raises regarding whether and when governments must provide for or grant religious exemptions to vaccination requirements. It then looks at how courts have addressed challenges to COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] vaccination requirements imposed by states and state entities. The second part of the report provides an overview of federal authority to mandate vaccination. It discusses several sources of existing federal statutory authority that could serve, or have been invoked, as the basis for federal COVID-19 vaccination mandates. [...] This part also reviews the extent of Congress's constitutional authority under the Constitution's Spending and Commerce Clauses to mandate vaccination. The report concludes with a brief discussion of a legal issue specific to COVID-19 vaccination mandates, particularly before FDA's licensure of Comirnaty. Namely, it reviews how courts have addressed some litigants' argument that the Emergency Use Authorization status of COVID-19 vaccines preclude entities from mandating COVID-19 vaccination."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Shen, Wen W.

  2022-05-17
• Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Program [Updated May 17, 2022]

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  From the Background: "Under the initial authorization for the Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program (Title I of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, P.L. 103-322, 'the 1994 Crime Act'), grants could be awarded for (1) hiring new police officers or rehiring police officers who have been laid off to engage in community policing, (2) hiring former members of the armed services to serve as career law enforcement officers engaged in community policing, and (3) supporting community policing nonhiring initiatives, such as training law enforcement officers in crime prevention and community policing techniques or developing technologies that support crime prevention strategies. The COPS program was reauthorized by the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162). The act changed the COPS program from a multi-grant program to a single-grant program under which DOJ [Department of Justice] can make grants to state, local, and tribal governments, and other public and private entities for a variety of enumerated purposes (see 34 U.S.C. §10381(b)). Congress has continued to appropriate funding for the COPS program even though authorized appropriations for the program expired in FY2009."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  James, Nathan

  2022-05-17
• Offshore Energy Agency Appropriations, FY2022 [Updated May 17, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Three entities in the Department of the Interior (DOI) share responsibility for managing the nation's ocean energy resources on almost 2.5 billion acres of the U.S. outer continental shelf (OCS). The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) administers offshore energy leasing and mineral development; the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) oversees offshore operational safety and environmental protection; and the Office of Natural Resources Revenue (ONRR) manages public revenues from federally regulated offshore and onshore energy and natural resource projects. BOEM, BSEE, and ONRR receive appropriations in the annual Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies appropriations bill. Issues include determining the aggregate and program-level appropriations for each entity."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Comay, Laura B.

  2022-05-17
• Domestic Steel Manufacturing: Overview and Prospects [May 17, 2022]

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  From the Introduction: "The condition of the domestic steel industry has been a long-standing concern of Congress because of steel's use in a wide range of consumer and industrial products--including motor vehicles, farm equipment, and appliances in many types of buildings and highway construction--=and because of the economic activity and manufacturing jobs steel mills generate. This report provides an overview of the domestic steel industry and its operating environment. It discusses industry capacity and output, steel prices, steel trade and regulatory measures, and employment and productivity. The report also examines efforts to reduce the industry's greenhouse gas emissions by developing 'green steel.' The report concludes with a discussion of select issues that may be of potential interest to Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Watson, Christopher D.

  2022-05-17
• Supreme Court's 'Major Questions' Doctrine: Background and Recent Developments [May 17, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Congress frequently delegates authority to agencies in general or broad terms to promulgate regulations that advance the goals Congress has identified. In a number of decisions, however, the Supreme Court has declared that if an agency seeks to decide an issue of major national significance, a general delegation of authority may not be enough; instead, the agency's action must be supported by clear statutory authorization. Courts, commentators, and individual Supreme Court Justices have referred to this doctrine as the 'major questions doctrine' (or major rules doctrine), although the Supreme Court has never used that term in a majority opinion. The Supreme Court has recently signaled an increased interest in applying the major questions doctrine as a principle of statutory interpretation in challenges to significant agency actions. This Sidebar provides an overview of the major questions doctrine, discusses cases this term in which the Court has invoked or may invoke the doctrine, and identifies considerations for Congress in crafting legislation against the backdrop of the doctrine."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bowers, Kate R.; Sheffner, Daniel J.

  2022-05-17
• Overview of the SEC Climate Risk Disclosure Proposed Rule [May 17, 2022]

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  From the Document: "On March 21, 2022, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) voted 3-1 to issue sweeping proposed climate-related disclosure rules for public companies. In issuing the proposed rules, the SEC cited its existing statutory authorities under the federal securities laws--specifically, the Securities Act of 1933 (P.L. [Public Law] 73-22) and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (P.L. 73-291). The proposal represents a more prescriptive and detailed approach to climate-related disclosures relative to the existing broad, principles-based climate-related disclosure regime embodied in the SEC's 2010 'Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change.' Among other things, it would require all public companies, as a growing number voluntarily do, to report on their direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and under certain circumstances their upstream and downstream GHG emissions. Public companies would also be required to report on the impacts of climate-related natural events and transitional activities to mitigate such impacts on their consolidated financial statements. [...] If adopted, the disclosure requirements would direct domestic or foreign SEC registrants to include climate-related information in their registration statements, such as Form S-1, and their periodic reports, such as Form 10-K. The proposed disclosures can be divided into four broad types described below: climate-related risks, GHG emissions, targets and goals, and audited financial statement disclosures."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Shorter, Gary W.; Miller, Rena S.

  2022-05-17
• Thrift Savings Plan: Investment Issues [May 17, 2022]

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  From the Document: "The Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) was created under the Federal Employees' Retirement System Act (FERSA; P.L. 99-335; June 6, 1986). TSP is a defined contribution retirement plan for the civilian federal workforce and the uniformed services, similar to the 401(k) plans sponsored by many private-sector employers. TSP provides individual accounts that serve as a source of income in retirement to participants and their beneficiaries. As of March 2022, there were more than 6.5 million total participants in TSP and $817.7 billion in total assets. The Federal Retirement Thrift Investment Board (FRTIB) administers TSP. FRTIB is an independent agency that receives no appropriations from Congress. Instead, administrative expenses for FRTIB are paid through TSP loan fees, 1% agency automatic contributions forfeited by certain employees who leave federal service before they have vested, and administrative charges against participant accounts. FRTIB is composed of five board members chosen by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Board also selects an Executive Director who manages daily operations. Under current law, members of the FRTIB and the Executive Director serve as fiduciaries, legally obligated to act 'solely in the interest of the [TSP] participants and beneficiaries … and for the exclusive purpose of providing benefits to participants and their beneficiaries' (5 U.S.C. §8477(b)(1)). All TSP investment options are set out under current law (5 U.S.C. §8438). In order to offer these investment options to participants, FRTIB develops specific investment policies--for example, selecting benchmarks for the index fund investment options--that provide for 'prudent investments suitable for accumulating funds for payment of retirement income; and low administrative costs' (5 U.S.C. §8475). Thus, in addition to its fiduciary responsibilities, FRTIB must adhere to their statutory mandates to keep administrative costs low and prudently manage returns for TSP account holders."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-

  2022-05-17
• Caribbean Basin Security Initiative [Updated May 16, 2022]

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  From the Document: "The United States developed the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI), a regional U.S. foreign assistance program, in 2009 through a process of dialogue with Caribbean countries. The initiative seeks to reduce illicit trafficking in the region, advance public safety and security, and promote social justice. Because of their geographic location, many Caribbean nations are vulnerable to being used as transit countries for illicit drugs from South America destined for the U.S. and European markets. Strengthened U.S. counter-narcotics cooperation with Mexico and Central America led U.S. policymakers to anticipate a potential increase in narcotics trafficking through the Caribbean. Many Caribbean countries have also suffered high rates of violent crime, including murder, often associated with drug trafficking activities. [...] In 2017, the State Department released a U.S. strategy for engagement in the Caribbean (required by P.L. 114-291, the United States-Caribbean Strategic Engagement Act of 2016). Among the priorities for engagement is security, with the objectives of strengthening mutual national security and advancing citizens' safety through programs to dismantle criminal and terrorist organizations, curb the trafficking of illicit goods and people, strengthen the rule of law, and counter vulnerability to terrorist threats--all efforts central to the CBSI. Congress has supported funding for the CBSI. From FY2010 through FY2022, Congress appropriated $831 million for the CBSI, benefiting 13 Caribbean countries-- Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago[.] For FY2021, Congress appropriated not less than $74.8 million for the CBSI in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 (P.L. 116-260, Explanatory Statement, Division K)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2022-05-16
• Algorithmic Stablecoins and the TerraUSD Crash [May 16, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Stablecoins [hyperlink] are a type of cryptocurrency [hyperlink] that aim to maintain a stable value. There are several classes of stablecoins that each use different methods to try to achieve this, one of which is algorithmic stablecoins. While no precise definition captures all of their features, algorithmic stablecoins [hyperlink] typically use an algorithm or smart contract [hyperlink] to manage the supply of tokens and guide their value to some reference asset (for example a fiat currency, such as the U.S. dollar). Algorithmic stablecoins generally do not attempt to achieve value by holding a reserve of fiat-denominated assets with a value in a 1:1 relationship with the value of the stablecoin. Instead, algorithmic stablecoins use different mechanisms to control the supply or value of the stablecoin, including the minting or burning [hyperlink] of coins, rebasing [hyperlink], and arbitrage."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tierno, Paul; Scott, Andrew P.; Su, Eva

  2022-05-16
• Bolivia: An Overview [Updated May 16, 2022]

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  From the Document: "After experiencing instability following the ouster of populist President Evo Morales (2005-2019), Bolivia remains politically polarized but has begun to recover economically under President Luis Arce. Arce, Morales' former finance minister, took office in November 2020 after a first-round victory in October 2020 elections in which his Movement Toward Socialism (MAS) party maintained a legislative majority. High natural gas prices related to the Ukraine conflict have helped Bolivia's economy recover from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. U.S. relations with Bolivia remain challenging, in part because of Bolivia's 2008 expulsion of the U.S. Ambassador and U.S. law enforcement and development agencies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2022-05-16
• Taxing Unemployment Insurance (UI) Benefits: Federal- and State-Level Tax Treatment During the COVID-19 Pandemic [May 16, 2022]

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  From the Introduction: "Congress enacted several temporary, now-expired Unemployment Insurance (UI) benefits for workers unemployed due to the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic and the resulting disruption of the economy and labor market. [...] The COVID-19 UI benefits authorized from March 2020 through September 2021 provided higher levels of income replacement than UI benefits paid during 2019. Benefits often exceeded previous weekly wages. For some individuals, higher UI benefit payments raised concerns about higher-than-anticipated federal income tax liabilities. Some states did not provide federal income tax withholding opportunities for certain types of COVID-19 UI benefits, further contributing to this concern. This report provides information on the federal taxation of UI benefits, including federal income tax withholding requirements related to the now-expired COVID-19 UI benefits. The report also discusses the federal income tax exclusion authorized for UI payments in 2020, which allowed taxpayers with modified adjusted gross income (AGI) of less than $150,000 to exclude up to $10,200 in UI benefits from 2020 taxable income. It also provides information from the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) on the amounts of UI benefits that were taxed in 2019 as well as program data on the percentage of all UI benefits that was withheld for the payment of federal income taxes in 2019 through 2021. Finally, the report summarizes state income tax treatment of UI benefits, including whether a state offers to withhold state income taxes from UI benefits, the state's withholding rate, and whether the state matched the temporary federal tax exclusion on up to $10,200 of UI benefits in 2020."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Whittaker, Julie M.; Isaacs, Katelin P., 1980-

  2022-05-16
• Ukraine and International Financial Institutions [May 16, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Russia's war against Ukraine has devastated the Ukrainian economy and is having widespread repercussions in Europe and around the world. While the economic impact is largest in Ukraine, neighboring countries are suffering from trade disruptions; higher food, energy, and commodity prices; and an influx of refugees. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other international financial institutions (IFIs) are providing emergency assistance to Ukraine and neighboring countries and are developing short- and medium-term assistance strategies. The United States government is supporting these efforts through U.S. leadership at the IFIs and through additional bilateral contributions. On April 28, the Biden Administration requested new FY2022 funding for IFIs as part of an emergency supplemental budget request for Ukraine, which was incorporated in H.R. 7691, which passed the House on May 10."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Weiss, Martin A.

  2022-05-16
• Big Tech in Financial Services [May 16, 2022]

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  From the Introduction: "The term 'Big Tech', which was coined in 2013 and connotes a specific technology-based business model of considerable scale, consists of Amazon, Apple, Google, Facebook (now Meta Platforms), and sometimes Microsoft (sometimes also called the 'Big Four' or the 'Big Five'; see the 'Who Are and What Is Big Tech?' section for a more thorough description of the term and companies). Big Techs are best known for platform-based businesses that range from e-commerce, social media, and search engines to smartphones and cloud services. Over the past decade, they have also steadily increased their financial services offerings--including providing value storage, credit, and stablecoin wallets--and are recognized as dominant providers in at least one sector: payments. Big Tech has charted various paths to deliver these services, with the same company sometimes employing different models depending on the offering. Big Techs intersect with financial services indirectly, too, in their role as cloud service providers. Combined, three of the Big Techs (Amazon, Microsoft, and Google) represent nearly 70% of the U.S. cloud market. Nearly all financial institutions use cloud services in some capacity, and the total workload performed in the cloud is expected to grow. [...] This report provides a broad overview of the business models that define Big Tech, including a review of the motivations and environment that surround Big Tech's operations in finance, with a focus on retail financial products. It evaluates the various financial services offered by Big Tech and its relevant partnerships. Finally, it discusses the policy issues raised by existing offerings and the implications of potential paths of development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tierno, Paul

  2022-05-16
• 'Quad': Security Cooperation Among the United States, Japan, India, and Australia [Updated May 16, 2022]

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  From the Document: "The Biden Administration has boosted the profile of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, aka 'the Quad,' as a centerpiece of its Indo-Pacific strategy aimed at strengthening the United States' position in and commitment to the region. The four-country coalition, comprised of the United States, Japan, India, and Australia, claims a common platform of protecting freedom of navigation and promoting democratic values in the region. The first leader-level summit, held virtually in March 2021, produced the first-ever joint leaders' statement. In September 2021, the four leaders met in person and released an expanded statement that outlined four broad areas of cooperation: vaccine production and distribution; climate change mitigation efforts and clean energy development; the promotion of transparency and high-standard governance in the field of critical and emerging technologies; and the development of a regional infrastructure partnership. Working groups in these areas are pushing forward with efforts to flesh out these priorities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Kronstadt, K. Alan; Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

  2022-05-16
• Iran and Nuclear Weapons Production [May 13, 2022]

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  From the Background: "Iran's nuclear program has generated widespread concern that Tehran is pursuing nuclear weapons. According to U.S. intelligence assessments, Tehran has the capacity to produce nuclear weapons at some point, but has halted its nuclear weapons program and has not mastered all of the necessary technologies for building such weapons. [...] Since the early 2000s, Tehran's construction of gas centrifuge uranium enrichment facilities has been the main source of proliferation concern. Gas centrifuges enrich uranium by spinning uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas at high speeds to increase the concentration of the uranium235 (u-235) isotope. Such centrifuges can produce both low-enriched uranium (LEU), which can be used in nuclear power reactors, and highly enriched uranium (HEU), which is one of the two types of fissile material used in nuclear weapons. Tehran asserts that its enrichment program is meant to produce fuel for peaceful nuclear reactors. The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) requires Iran to implement various restrictions on its nuclear program, as well as to accept specific monitoring and reporting requirements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kerr, Paul K.

  2022-05-13
• 'Hacktivists' and the Ukraine-Russia Conflict: Legal Considerations [May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Since Russia's February 24, 2022, invasion of Ukraine, a growing number of nongovernmental hackers motivated by social or political objectives--so-called 'hacktivists' [hyperlink]--have [hyperlink] conducted offensive cyberspace operations against Russia. Some of these groups and individuals may be responding to a February 26 tweet [hyperlink] by Mykhailo Fedorov, Ukraine's Vice Prime Minister and Minister of Digital Transformation, who called for the creation of a volunteer 'IT [information technology] Army.' One scholar has cited [hyperlink] this invitation as 'the first time that states have openly called for citizens and volunteers to cyberattack another state.' Ukraine's volunteer IT Army--which may include [hyperlink] 'hundreds of thousands of hackers' from within and outside Ukraine--may be working on 'operational tasks [hyperlink]' identified by the Ukrainian government. This volunteer organization joins the International Legion of Ukraine [hyperlink] as a way for foreign volunteers to participate in the conflict. However, just as participation in the International Legion might result in adverse legal consequences [hyperlink] for volunteers who are U.S. nationals, various federal statutes might be implicated should U.S. persons join the IT Army or otherwise conduct cyberspace operations against Russian assets. This Sidebar considers potential civil and criminal liability under federal law for individuals within the United States who hack foreign governmental or nongovernmental computers. It first discusses the potential applicability of two federal statutes to alleged hostile or malicious cyber activities targeting Russia by hacktivists residing in the United States: the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) and the Neutrality Act. It then presents several considerations for Congress as this situation evolves. Although this Sidebar generally discusses volunteers acting on Ukraine's behalf, the analysis below would also likely apply to U.S. persons acting on Russia's behalf against Ukraine."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gaffney, Jonathan M.

  2022-05-13
• Online Content Moderation and Government Coercion [May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "In recent years, there has been growing concern about the power of social media companies to control online speech. Some users have tried to assert [hyperlink] that online platforms violated users' constitutional free speech rights by removing users' content or otherwise restricting their ability to post on these platforms. Lower courts have rejected [hyperlink] these claims, citing the well-established principle that private companies are not bound by the First Amendment's Free Speech Clause and therefore holding that the Constitution does not limit their ability to restrict user content. More recent lawsuits [hyperlink], however, have alleged that the government itself has been involved in restricting certain types of content, creating government encouragement or coercion that does implicate constitutional free speech concerns. One high-profile example is a group of lawsuits from former President Trump, initially filed almost a year ago, alleging that Facebook [hyperlink], Twitter [hyperlink], and YouTube [hyperlink] violated his First Amendment rights by banning him from their online platforms. He claimed that the companies were motivated to act based on fear of government regulation, implicating the First Amendment. On May 6, 2022, a trial court disagreed and dismissed his lawsuit against Twitter. (The other two suits remain pending.) While lawsuits bringing similar claims have largely been dismissed, they nonetheless illustrate an ongoing concern about government involvement in private content moderation. This Legal Sidebar explores this issue, explaining the relevant legal background and the significance of recent lawsuits."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Brannon, Valerie C.; Novak, Whitney K.

  2022-05-13
• Supply Disruptions and the U.S. Economy [May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "The COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has disrupted the production of many goods and services. Although those disruptions have waned since spring 2020, some continue to constrain production, exacerbating inflationary pressures [hyperlink]. The Biden Administration has announced a series of initiatives to address supply chain disruptions, which are detailed in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Insight IN11927 [hyperlink]. This Insight discusses some of the factors contributing to supply disruptions and policy considerations surrounding this issue."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Labonte, Marc; Weinstock, Lida R.

  2022-05-13
• Summary of Selected Biden Administration Actions on Supply Chains [May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Insight presents selected Biden Administration actions on supply chains. The U.S. economy has faced many supply disruptions and bottlenecks since the beginning of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic. These supply issues have contributed to high inflation throughout 2021 and thus far in 2022. For more information on supply chain disruptions and their effect on the U.S. economy, see CRS Insight IN11926 [hyperlink]. The first section of this Insight focuses on select executive orders signed by President Biden aimed at supply chain issues. The second section focuses on other Administration actions and goals to reduce supply chain disruptions and bottlenecks. Both sections are organized in chronological order. Each header provides a hyperlink to a description of the action in question."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Weinstock, Lida R.

  2022-05-13
• Russia's 2022 Invasion of Ukraine: Related CRS Products [Updated May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "On February 24, 2022, the Russian Federation invaded Ukraine, with wide-ranging implications for U.S. national security and an array of global geopolitical and economic issues. This report compiles CRS [Congressional Research Service] products on various aspects of this conflict, and will be updated regularly as new products are developed. It also includes some products published before the invasion that offer relevant background and context."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Danon, Zoe; Blum, David A.

  2022-05-13
• Cuba: U.S. Policy Overview [Updated May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Cuba remains a one-party authoritarian state with a government that has sharply restricted freedoms of expression, association, assembly, and other basic human rights since the early years of the 1959 Cuban revolution. [...] In its initial months, the Biden Administration announced it was conducting a review of policy toward Cuba. The White House press secretary said in March 2021 that the Administration would make human rights a core pillar of policy and would review policy decisions made in the prior Administration, including the decision to designate Cuba as a state sponsor of terrorism."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2022-05-13
• Introduction to Budget Authority [May 13, 2022]

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  From the Document: "Under the U.S. Constitution, Congress exercises the 'power of the purse.' This power is expressed through the application of several provisions, particularly Article I, Section 9, which states that funds may be drawn from the Treasury only pursuant to appropriations made by law. However, when Congress enacts an appropriation, this does not mean that the Treasury sets aside cash for a specified agency to allow it to carry out that purpose. In practice, it means that when Congress enacts an appropriation it is providing an agency with 'budget authority' that can be used to finance federal programs and activities. This budget authority allows agencies to enter into various financial obligations and for the Treasury to subsequently outlay the funds to meet those obligations. Agencies can enter into financial obligations through such things as employing personnel, entering into contracts, submitting purchase orders, or other activities that establish a financial liability. Because it takes time for budget authority to become outlays, the amount of budget authority enacted for a fiscal year does not necessarily equal the amount of outlays that will occur in that year. The outlay amounts for proposed budget authority are estimates based on the historical rate at which funds for a given account or activity have been expended (known as the 'outlay rate' or 'spendout rate')."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Saturno, James

  2022-05-13
• Executive Privilege and Presidential Communications: Judicial Principles [May 12, 2022]

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  From the Introduction: "Presidents have claimed a right to withhold their communications from Congress since the start of the Republic. Congress's resistance to such claims, however, is just as grounded in history. The resulting, recurring, and often prominent disagreements over what has come to be known broadly as 'executive privilege' tend to place in opposition two implied and often competing constitutional principles: Congress's right to obtain information necessary to carry out its legislative functions and the President's interest in protecting the confidentiality of his (and sometimes his subordinates') communications. Unlike more traditional legal disagreements between parties, resolution of these inter-branch executive privilege disputes has not historically come from the courts. Instead, when conflict has been avoided, it has typically been because of a process of compromise and accommodation in which absolute claims--for either access or confidentiality--are relinquished and replaced by a negotiated resolution acceptable to both Congress and the Executive. [...] This report addresses the judicial treatment of a core component of 'executive privilege': the presidential communications privilege. The report begins by identifying the various executive privileges in order to distinguish the presidential communications privilege from other executive branch confidentiality protections. It then discusses--in historical context--notable judicial opinions to help elucidate the legal standards applicable to disputes between Congress and the President over presidential communications. The report concludes by addressing the presidential communications privilege's application to former Presidents."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garvey, Todd

  2022-05-12
• Statutory Inspectors General in the Federal Government: A Primer [Updated May 12, 2022]

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  From the Summary: "This report provides an overview of statutory inspectors general (IGs) in the federal government, including their structure, functions, and related issues for Congress. [...] As the federal government continues to evolve, so too does the role of IGs in government oversight. Agency programs and operations have increased in terms of breadth, complexity, and interconnectedness. Consequently, IGs may face increasing demand to complete statutorily mandated reviews of programs and operations that require (1) a broader focus on program performance and effectiveness in addition to waste, fraud, and abuse; (2) analysis of specialty or technical programs, possibly in emerging policy areas; and (3) use of more complex analytical methods and tools. Congress may wish to consider several options regarding IG structures, functions, and coordination as the role of IGs in government oversight evolves."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Francis, Kathryn A.; Wilhelm, Ben

  2022-05-12
• SBA Veterans Assistance Programs: An Analysis of Contemporary Issues [Updated May 12, 2022]

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  From the Summary: "This report opens with an examination of the economic circumstances of veteran-owned businesses. It then provides a brief overview of veterans' employment experiences, comparing unemployment and labor force participation rates for veterans, veterans who have left the military since September 2001, and nonveterans. The report also describes employment assistance programs offered by several federal agencies to assist veterans in their transition from the military to the civilian labor force and examines, in greater detail, the SBA's veteran business development programs, the SBA's efforts to assist veterans' access to capital, and the SBA's service-disabled veteran-owned (SDVOSB) federal procurement program. It also discusses the SBA's Military Reservist Economic Injury Disaster Loan program and P.L. 114-38, the Veterans Entrepreneurship Act of 2015, which authorized and made permanent, under specified circumstances, the SBA's recent practice of waiving the SBAExpress loan program's one time, up-front loan guarantee fee for veterans (and their spouses)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dilger, Robert Jay, 1954-; Cilluffo, Anthony A.

  2022-05-12